CHINA THE QING DYNASTY
The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) was the last Chinese dynasty, and the longest dynasty ruled by foreigners (the Manchus from Manchuria, northeast of the Great Wall).
The Forbidden City was the imperial palace of the Ming Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty.
The Manchus Were Originally Jurchen Tribes (220–1582)
After the Han Dynasty (220 AD), Jurchens had grown in power and ruled China in the Jin Dynasty era (265–420).They were kept north of the Great Wall in subsequent dynasties, and were conquered by the Mongols of the Yuan Empire (1279–1368). The Mongols and the Jurchens were then driven north of the Great Wall by the Han Chinese of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).
Nurhaci United the Manchus (1559–1626)
The Manchus emerged as a people when a Jurchen tribal ruler named Nurhaci started to conquer other Jurchen tribes in 1582. They subjugated the Mongols, and absorbed their troops. In a similar way to Genghis Khan, he utilized the manpower and knowledge of the people he conquered.
Shenyang Imperial PalaceShenyang Imperial Palace.
Nurhaci conquered Shenyang and made it his capital.
In 1625, Nurhaci conquered the Ming city of Shenyang and made it the Manchurian capital. The Ming cities gave his empire a greater base of population, and the Manchu empire absorbed them. You can still see the early Manchu rulers' Shenyang Imperial Palace today.
Hong Taiji Continued the Attack (1626–1643)
Nurhaci's successor was his son, who was named Hong Taiji. He continued the attack on the Ming Empire, strengthening his artillery with European technology, and Ming-technician-cast cannon. He created his own artillery corps in 1634.
His empire was called the Later Jin Dynasty at first, but in 1636, he renamed it the Great Qing Empire. . Hong Taiji died in 1643, and his son Fulin led the Manchus.
Ming Rebels Take Beijing (1643–1644)
While facing Manchu attacks from the north the Ming Dynasty were also faced with civil rebellion. Li Zicheng emerged as the leader of the whole Chinese rebel army and took Beijing with little resistance in 1644.
Great Wall Gates Opened to The Manchus (1644)
However, when Li Zicheng sent an army to attack Ming General Wu Sangui and his army, who were guarding the Great Wall against the Manchus at Shanhai Pass, instead of surrendering to the Chinese rebels, Wu Sangui sided with the Manchus and let them through the gates of the Great Wall.
Then the Manchus swept aside the rebels and the last of the Ming Dynasty resistance, conquering Beijing in 1644.
The Beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644)
In 1644, the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty had hanged himself after the capital was conquered, and China was in chaos for months. The Qing (Jurchen, Mongol, and Ming) army swept south.In October 30, 1644, about 5 months after the Qing army occupied the capital, Hong Taiji's son Fulin became the Emperor Shunzhi, and he announced the new dynasty was founded.
Emperor Shunzhi (ruled 1644–1661)
Emperor Shunzhi (1638–1661) was a 5-year-old when his father died in 1643 and he was named emperor.
The Regent Dorgon Led the Government (1643-1650)
Dorgon was the regent and ruled on behalf of the child emperor. When Dorgon died in 1650, Emperor Shunzhi started to rule personally when he was 13 until he died at 24 in 1661.
Qing Dynasty's HairstyleQing Dynasty hair styles
His policies of reappointing the Ming officials helped the empire to stabilize and prosper. The Manchus did not destroy Beijing and decimate the population as was commonly done. Instead, they persuaded Ming officials and military leaders to surrender to them.
The Hairstyle Massacre (1645)
In 1645, Dorgon decreed that Ming men must shave away their hair apart from Manchu-style pigtails. This started the queue hairstyle that is seen in movies about the Qing Empire.This hairstyle was humiliating, but helped him to identify resisters. According to Confucius, we are given our body, skin and hair from our parents, which we ought not to damage. Traditionally adult Han people did not cut their hair.
Dorgon said, "Keep your hair, lose your head; keep your head, cut your hair." Tens of thousands who resisted were massacred.
Imperial Examinations Continued (1646–1911)
In 1646, Dorgon reestablished the imperial examinations, held every three years, and in this way, he gained the support of large numbers of literati and the bureaucracy.A problem in the empire increasingly became the lack of modern education. The empire concentrated on Imperial Examinations, studying ancient philosophical and religious texts.
Emperor Kangxi — the Qing Golden Age Begins (ruled 1661–1722)
Emperor KangxiEmperor Kangxi.
After Emperor Shunzhi's death, Emperor Kangxi (1654–1722) became the ruler. He had one of the longest reigns in dynastic history. Like Kublai Khan at the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, and Zhu Yuanzhang in the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, during his 61-year rule he set the policy direction for the empire and stabilized it.
Restricted Foreign Trade (1661–1840)
The Ming Empire developed a somewhat laissez-faire attitude to internal trade and industry. But under Emperor Kangxi and his successors, the court more carefully controlled commerce and industry . Emperor Kangxi only allowed foreign businessman to trade with Chinese in four cities: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Songjian, and Ningbo.
3 Reasons Why the Qing Dynasty Banned Foreign Trade:
1. The Chinese ruling class believed that China was the greatest empire — the ‘Middle Kingdom' — and scorned outsiders.
2. The Manchu rulers didn't want the Han in coastal areas to grow stronger through trade with foreigners.
3. The Qing government was angered by foreign ambassadors' "impoliteness" — the ambassadors refused to kneel to the ruling class.
Emperor Yongzheng — The Golden Age Continues (ruled 1723–1735)
Emperor Kangxi had a lot of sons by different women, but Emperor Yongzheng (1668–1735) the fourth prince was named as successor in his will. Less well known than his father and son, he continued the Qing's prosperous period with efficiency.
Emperor Qianlong — End of the Golden Age (ruled 1735–1796)
Emperor QianlongEmperor Qianlong
Emperor Yongzheng's son was named Emperor Qianlong (1711–1799). He officially reigned for 61 years as Kangxi did. But he actually reigned till his death in 1799. His court was successful early in his reign, but he later his greed set the empire on an unfavorable course.
China's Huge Prosperity and Growth
Qianlong's reign was the most prosperous in the Qing Dynasty, and the population grew quickly to about 300 million. However foreign trade was restricted to only Guangzhou (Canton) at one point.
The empire grew larger, as they subdued Tibet and the Xinjiang regions, inheriting Mongolia from the dynasties founders, and wiping out the Dzungars (a large Mongolian tribe of hundreds of thousands). The land area of the Qing empire was second only to the Yuan Empire's in size.
Huge Growth in Chinese Literature
In the middle of their dynastic era, when the empire was at its height, one of the four great classic novels was written called Dream of the Red Chamber. See more on The History of Chinese Literature.
Qianlong's Greed Brought Decline (1765–1799)
However, Emperor Qianlong grew greedy. After his victories in the west, he tried to conquer the kingdoms of Burma and Vietnam from 1765 to 1769 and failed at a great cost to the empire.
In his later years he indulged in luxuries, sex, and palaces, leaving court matters to corrupt officials. Discontent against Qing rule increased, and people arose in rebellion over heavy taxation. His isolationist actions towards Europeans kept the people from adopting technology and scientific knowledge, and set the stage for later inadequacy and invasions.
Emperor Jiaqing (ruled 1796–1820) — Qing Decline Began
During the 1800s, the dynasty seemed somewhat successful because the population kept growing and the territory stayed intact, but the empire modernized too slowly, and the ruling court dealt poorly with a rapidly changing world and numerous uprisings.
Wangfujing ChurchWangfujing Church in Beijing
A Great Missionary Age (c. 1800–1912)
Protestant evangelical Christianity was introduced by Western missionaries, and tens of thousands of Chinese converted.
The missionaries set up numerous schools and hospitals, educating tens of thousands of students and educating doctors and nurses in Western medicine. They also set up colleges and universities.
Emperor Daoguang (ruled 1821–1851) — War with Europe
The Trade Wars and Opium Wars (1838, 1854)
In the 1800s, Europeans easily defeated the Qing army and navy, and forced the Qing to give them trading ports.
The British wanted greater Qing Empire trade, but the Qing court wanted to keep out British opium and influence. Britain defeated China twice in 1838 and 1854 (the Opium Wars) to force trade treaties, and gained Hong Kong until 1997 under the Treaty of Nanking of 1842.
Emperor Xianfeng (ruled 1851–1861) — Many Rebellions Started
From 1796 until the end of the dynastic era, the Qing court faced rebellion after rebellion, but they defeated or thwarted all of them. This was however at great cost to the population and the Qing grip on power.
The Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864) — 25,000,000 Died!
The leader of the Taiping Rebellion was Hong Xiuquan. His quasi-Christian movement had some forward-thinking ideals which the Qing Dynasty disagreed with (he banned slavery, men using concubines, arranged marriages, opium use, foot binding, torture, and the worship of idols, and he wanted women to have more equality in society).
He made Nanjing his capital, and his army seemed ready to attack Beijing. However, Britain and France sent troops to aid the Qing army. In 13 years, about 25 million people died. It is thought to be the second bloodiest war in history after WWII.
3 More Rebellions and Wars (1854–1873)
The Miao people also rebelled in Guizhou. It is thought that millions of people were killed in two wars around 1800 and from 1854 to 1873.
The Hakka people and the Punti people in the southeast fought a long ethnic war between the years 1855 and 1867.
The Panthay Rebellion was a Muslim rebellion in Yunnan that lasted from 1855 to 1873, in which about a million people died.
Empress Dowager Cixi (ruled 1861–1908)
Empress Dowager Cixi's son (Emperor Tongzhi) "reigned" from 1862 to 1874, and her nephew (Emperor Guangxu) "ruled" from 1875 to 1908. But it is said that she was the real ruler during this long and crucial period of time.
How Cixi Gained and Retained Power
summer palaceTens of millions in navy funds were diverted by Empress Dowager Cixi to rebuild the Summer Palace.
The Empress Dowager (1835–1908) started to rule after British and French troops attacked Beijing and destroyed the Summer Palace in 1860. It's said that Emperor Xianfeng then fell into a depression, and as a result died in 1861, making Cixi (his concubine and son's mother) an empress dowager to help his son rule.
To maintain and gain power at the top, Cixi was ruthless in a dangerous court situation where assassinations and plots were the way of life. She had to maintain the traditional system, although this cost millions of lives and kept the empire from progressing.
Muslim's Revolt in the North (1864–1877) —
Millions Killed
With several other large rebellions and wars happening around the Qing Empire, the Dungan Revolt involved a large region in the central north.
It was partly a war between three Muslim sects, aiming to establish a regional Muslim kingdom. . Several million people were killed.
Huge Famines (1876–1879 and 1907) —
Around 35,000,000 Died
The Northern Chinese Famine killed about 10 percent of the population of several northern provinces.
The 1907 Chinese Famine killed about 25 million people. These were two of the biggest famines in world history.
The Japanese Took Taiwan and Liaoning (1894–5)
The Qing Dynasty lost the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), and the Japanese made Formosa (Taiwan) and Liaoning (the northeast corner of China, i.e. Manchuria, once the Manchu homeland) a part of their empire. Taiwan became an industrial colony.
Emperor Guangxu Imprisoned by Cixi (1898)
In 1898, the Empress Dowager blocked her nephew from reforming the government and imprisoned him. He died from arsenic poisoning in 1908. People suspect that Cixi killed him the day before she died. Some suspect she was poisoned too.
The Boxer Rebellion (1900)
In 1900, a rebellion started among the poor, led by people who studied martial arts, so it was called the Boxer Rebellion. At first their goal was to overthrow the government and expel or kill foreigners. But Cixi supported the movement secretly, so the leaders supported the Qing Dynasty.
The Last Emperor (presided 1908–1912)
In 1908, when Cixi and the emperor suddenly died, Puyi became "the last emperor" — 2-year-old Emperor Xuantong. The empire's official ruler was a prince regent Zaifeng, Puyi's father.
facts about the Qing Dynasty
The Rise of the Republican Revolution (1911–1912)
In the early 1900s, Sun Yatsen had traveled around the world to organize a revolution against the Qing Dynasty.
Sun Yat-sen
CHINESE LEADER
Early Life And Influences
Sun was born to a family of poor farmers in Xiangshan, in the South China province of Guangdong. In 1879 his brother Sun Mei, who had earlier emigrated to Hawaii as a labourer, brought him to Honolulu, where, as a student at a British missionary school for three years and at an American school, Oahu College, for another year, he first came into contact with Western influences. Because his brother objected to his penchant for Christianity, Sun returned to his native village in 1883 and went to study at the Diocesan Home in Hong Kong in the fall; late that year, he was baptized by an American missionary.
In 1884 he transferred to the Government Central School (later known as Queen’s College) and married Lu Muzhen (1867–1952), who was chosen for him by his parents.
Although not trained for a political career in the traditional style, Sun was nevertheless ambitious and was troubled by the way China, which had clung to its traditional ways under the conservative Qing dynasty, suffered humiliation at the hands of more technologically advanced nations. Forsaking his medical practice in Guangzhou, he went north in 1894 to seek political fortunes. In a long letter to Li Hongzhang, governor-general of Zhili (Chihli, now Hebei) province, he set forth his ideas of how China could gain strength, but all he received from Li was a perfunctory endorsement of his scheme for an agricultural-sericultural association. With this scant reference, Sun went to Hawaii in October 1894 and founded an organization called the Revive China Society (Xingzhonghui), which became the forerunner of the secret revolutionary groups Sun later headed. As far as it can be determined, the membership was drawn entirely from natives of Guangdong and from lower social classes, such as clerks, peasants, and artisans.
Years In Exile
Taking advantage of China’s defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) and the ensuing crisis, Sun went to Hong Kong in 1895 and plotted for an uprising in Guangzhou (Canton), the capital of his native province. When the scheme failed, he began a 16-year exile abroad.
In 1896, under circumstances not entirely clear, Sun was caught and detained for 13 days by the Chinese legation in London. It appears likely that Sun ran into a fellow Cantonese who worked for the legation and was found out and seized while visiting him under an alias. The legation planned to ship Sun back to China, but, before this could be done, Sun had converted a British employee at the legation to his side and got word through to James Cantlie, former dean of Hong Kong College of Medicine. The British Foreign Office intervened, and Sun was released from his captivity. The incident engendered great publicity and gave Sun’s career a powerful boost.
After spending much of the ensuing eight months reading in the British Museum, Sun traveled to Japan by way of Canada. Arriving in August 1897, he was met by Miyazaki Torazō, an adventurer who had heard of the London incident and who was willing to help Sun in his political activities. Miyazaki introduced Sun to many influential Japanese, including the elder statesmen Ōkuma Shigenobu, Soejima Taneomi, and Inukai Tsuyoshi, from some of whom Sun was to receive both political and financial assistance.
During the turmoil of 1900, Sun participated in secret maneuvers involving Sir Henry Blake, the British governor of Hong Kong, and He Kai, an influential Chinese in that colony. Their aim was to persuade Li Hongzhang to declare independence from the Qing. Responding to an invitation by Li’s staff, Sun journeyed to Hong Kong, but, fearing a trap, he did not go ashore. Instead, he was represented by Miyazaki and two other Japanese at the meeting, which proved fruitless.
Previously, Sun had made contact with bandits and secret societies in Guangdong. These forces began a revolt in Huizhou (present-day Huiyang in Guangdong) in October 1900. The campaign, the second of 10 claimed by Sun between 1895 and 1911, lasted 12 days.
Founding Of The United League
The year 1903 marked a significant turning point in Sun’s career; from then on, his following came increasingly from the educated class, the most prestigious and influential group in China. For this decisive change Sun owed much to two factors: the steady decline of the Qing dynasty and the powerful propaganda of Liang Qichao, a reformist who fled to Japan in 1898, founded a Chinese press, and turned it into an instant success. Liang did not actually oppose the Qing regime, but his attacks on Cixi, the empress dowager, who effectively ruled the country, served to undermine the regime and make revolution the only logical choice. As a consequence, Sun’s stock rose steadily among the Chinese students abroad. In 1904 he was able to establish several revolutionary cells in Europe, and in 1905 he became head of a revolutionary coalition, the United League (Tongmenghui), in Tokyo. For the next three years the society propagandized effectively through its mouthpiece, “People’s Journal” (Minbao).
The rise in Sun’s fortune increased many of his difficulties. The United League was very loosely organized, and Sun had no control over the individual members. Worse still, all the revolts Sun and the others organized ended in failure. The members fell into despair, and outside financial contributions declined. Furthermore, as a result of pressures exercised by the Qing, foreign governments increasingly shunned Sun. In 1907 the Japanese government gave him a sum of money and asked him to leave the country. A year later French Indochina, where Sun had hatched several plots, banned him completely. Hong Kong and several other territories were similarly out of his reach.
In the circumstances, Sun spent a year in 1909–10 touring Europe and the United States. Returning to Asia in June 1910, he left for the West again in December after a meeting with other revolutionaries, in which they decided to make a massive effort to capture Guangzhou. This time Sun raised more money in Canada and the United States, but the uprising of April 27 in Guangzhou (known as the March 29 Revolution, because of its date in the Chinese calendar) fared no better than the earlier plots. The possibility of revolutionary success seemed more remote than ever.
But help was to come from the Qing. If only for self-preservation, the court had sponsored reform since 1901. In the next few years it reorganized the army, instituted a school system, abolished the civil-service examinations based on traditional Chinese scholarship, reconstructed many government organs, and convened provincial and national assemblies. The educated class nevertheless remained unsatisfied with the tempo of change, and the regime was rapidly losing its grip over the situation.
The Revolution Of 1911
In 1911 the Qing decided to nationalize all the trunk railways, thus incurring the wrath of local vested interests. Armed rebellion broke out in the province of Sichuan, and the court exposed itself to further attacks by failing to suppress it. In October of the same year a local revolutionary group in Wuhan, one of many in China by this time, began another rebellion, which, in spite of its lack of coordination, unexpectedly managed to overthrow the provincial government. Its success inspired other provincial secessions.
Sun Yat-sen learned of the Wuhan revolution from the newspapers while he was in Denver, Colo. He returned to Shanghai in December and was elected provisional president by delegates meeting in Nanjing. Knowing that his regime was weak, Sun made a deal with Yuan Shikai (Yüan Shih-k’ai), an imperial minister who had been entrusted with full power by the court. On Feb. 12, 1912, the emperor abdicated; the next day Sun resigned, and on the 14th Yuan was elected his successor.
Legacy
Sun’s political doctrines are summarized in his Three Principles of the People (nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood—the last involving the regulation of private capital and “equalizing land rights”) and his Plan for National Reconstruction, which explained basic parliamentary procedures, attacked the traditional Chinese saying that to know is easier than to do, and set forth a grandiose plan for China’s industrialization, concocted by Sun without much help from engineers or economists.
