DEBRA PAGET , GREAT STAR BORN 1933 ,AUGUST 19

 

DEBRA PAGET , GREAT STAR 

BORN 1933 ,AUGUST 19

Debra Paget … What She Learned

About Elvis Presley in 1956

Although her role as Lilia the water girl in The Ten Commandments was her signature role in a 15-year Hollywood career, Debra Paget is best remembered today by Elvis enthusiasts as Presley’s first leading lady in his 1956 debut film, Love Me Tender. Born Debralee Griffin on August 19, 1933, she later took the stage name “Paget” after her actress mother moved the family to Los Angeles from Denver.

She began her motion picture career at the age of 15. Her big break came in 1950, when she appeared opposite James Stewart in Broken Arrow. Young, beautiful, and talented, Paget signed an exclusive contract with 20th Century Fox. While Love Me Tender was Elvis’s first film, it was Paget’s 20th picture, although she was only 17 months older than the 21-year-old Presley.

In April 1957, just five months after Love Me Tender opened nationally, an article titled, “What I Found Out About Elvis!” appeared in TV and Movie Screen magazine with Debra Paget’s byline. While it is possible that she wrote the article, it is more likely that it was written in the first person by a magazine writer who had interviewed Paget. In either case, the sentiments expressed in the article appear to accurately represent the actress’s true impressions of Elvis.

• Debra Paget was apprehensive about meeting Elvis

The article opens with Debra Paget recalling her first meeting with Elvis on The Milton Berle Show on June 5, 1956. “Although I usually don’t form an opinion of a person until I have met him,” she explained, “frankly I looked forward to my first meeting with Elvis Presley with mixed emotions. I’d heard and read a lot about this new young singing sensation from Tennessee—and most of it was not complimentary.”

According to Paget, though, Elvis impressed her from the very beginning. “The first thing I recall was the way he greeted us. When Mr. Berle introduced us, Elvis grabbed my hand firmly and said, ‘I’m glad to meet you, Miss Paget.’ Then he shook my mother’s hand with equal vigor, excused himself, and a couple of minutes later came back with a chair for her. We were together for only a couple of hours but sometimes you can learn more about a person in a short span of time than in weeks of seeing one another constantly. I felt I did. From the very beginning, Elvis impressed me as a pleasant, sincere, obliging young man.”

A few months later, Paget learned that Elvis had been given a staring role in a film for which she and Richard Eagan had already been cast. At first she sensed a great deal of apprehension on the set, but soon, she said, Elvis won over the cast and crew as he had her a few months earlier.

• In many ways Elvis surprised Debra Paget

“From then on my family and I saw a lot of Elvis,” Paget explained, “—at the studio, on location, when he came over to our house for a swim on Sundays. I grew to understand him better. I also found out some things which really surprised me.”

One of the things that surprised her was Elvis's sensitivity. “At first I’d been under the impression that he was quite indifferent to the attacks made on him for the way he sings, dresses, wears his sideburns, and all the other comments. But he isn’t. Not that he’d admit the fact easily to a stranger … I could tell he was deeply hurt when his performances were criticized, or when he was threatened with being banned from certain cities.”

Another thing that amazed Paget was how easily Elvis adapted to acting. “Had anyone told me that he’d never had a dramatic lesson, never stood in front of a movie camera, I wouldn’t have believed it. His acting was convincing, he always knew his lines, he picked up like a trouper the purely technical aspects, like moving in and out of camera range, and the many other tricks of the trade that usually take months and years of experience to learn. However, he was so modest about his ability to catch on quickly, he was just about the only person who didn’t think he was doing well.”

Paget mentioned that some of her friends had asked her if Elvis had “romantic appeal.” She addressed the question in a matter-of-fact manner. “I’m convinced he has, and that it will come across on the screen. It is certainly felt by those who meet him, although I don’t think Elvis himself is conscious of it. He certainly never talks about his ‘conquests.’”

• Elvis and Debra Paget’s relationship was platonic

The actress portrayed her own relationship with Elvis as being more family-oriented than romantic. “From the time he first came to the house,” she recalled, “my folks have considered Elvis a member of the Paget clan—a feeling which, I believe, he reciprocated. I had the feeling that our closely-knit family life must resemble his own to quite an extent. And I could tell how much he missed his parents.”

Elvis told Debra that one night in Hollywood he felt so lonesome that he called his parents in Memphis. The phone rang several times before his mother answered. Elvis said, “Hi, mom. What’re ya doin’?” She responded, “What do you think I’m doing—I’m sleeping!” Elvis hadn’t stopped to realize that, while it might be 11 p.m. in Los Angeles, it was 1 a.m. in Memphis.

Although Elvis was obviously a unique young man, Debra Paget concluded that in many ways he was a “normal, healthy twenty-one year old.” For one thing, he had a large amount of energy to burn. She learned that one morning when she walked onto the set. “Someone shouted ‘DUCK!’—a split second before a football shot past my head,” she remembered. “A moment later Elvis was by my side, breathless and apologetic. ‘Ah’m so sorry, Debra. (I finally talked him into calling me by my first name.) Ah didn’t mean to scare you.” She explained that Elvis and his cousin Gene were always active when they had some free time on the set. “When they don’t play football they throw a baseball, have mock fights with knives or hatchets, or find some other way to entertain themselves.”

• Debra Paget—“Elvis Presley is here to stay”

The magazine article concluded with Debra Paget assessing Elvis’s future chances for success in the entertainment business. “I will gladly take a chance on predicting that Elvis Presley will continue to retain his popularity, regardless of rock ’n’ roll: and I mean popularity not only with the fans who see him in the movies, or TV, or his personal appearances, but even more so with people who are fortunate enough to meet him in person. Elvis Presley is here to stay.”

While Love Me Tender marked the beginning of Elvis Presley’s Hollywood career, it came at the same time that Debra Paget’s career began to decline. In 1955 20th Century Fox had cancelled her exclusive contract after she appeared in a non-Fox film. After Love Me Tender she had roles in 12 more films before retiring from Hollywood at the age of 29 in 1962. She married three times and had one son. Debra Paget currently lives in Houston, Texas. — Alan Hanson | © July 2009

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DEBRA PAGET

The star of one of the most influential westerns ever filmed, “Broken Arrow”, was the second of a trio of beautiful siblings to enter the movies. Alongside her sisters, Debra feels “like an ugly duckling! (Laughs) I think Teala (Loring) is the prettiest, then Lisa (Gaye), then myself! Lisa has a quick, sharp wit about her, and a good sense of humor.”

Religion played an important part in all three sisters’ lives. “I used to have a show on Trinity Broadcasting; I once did a seminar with Jacqueline White that was fun. We talked about the picture days. I do things for the Lord Jesus Christ—I give speeches, I write gospel songs and poems that are used when I speak.”

Debra was married three times, all ended in divorce, including a brief marriage to flamboyant western director Budd Boetticher. She has no plans to return to films. “Things were decent then. In 1982, I decided to go back to work. A newspaper reporter did a long story on me. Then I prayed about it, and decided not to do it. I did do a play, that was lots of fun, but I will never have a full-time acting career again. I was pleased to learn a contemporary actress, Debra Winger, was named after me.”

Debrahlee Griffin obtained a contract with 20th Century Fox at a very tender age. “I had gone into the theatre at about 9-10 years old and worked professionally from 11 on. I signed a contract at 20th Century Fox at 14. My Mother was my agent. She had a lot of contacts and through her connections, I was signed. It kind of took your breath away at first. I was awe-struck. It took a while to come down off that cloud. I had to have a parent and a schoolteacher with me at all times. I was at Fox for two weeks when I did ‘Cry of the City’ with Richard Conte and Victor Mature. They had shot the small part of a young 18-year-old, who had an innocent look about her, with two different actresses. They didn’t like the results and decided to test three more. When I did the part, they liked what they saw, and I was kept after the six-month option period! I worked with Victor Mature in that when I was about 14 years old. I was so shy, terrified and insecure. He would put me on all the time. I didn’t know it was a put on. I thought he was really mad at me. I’d run to my dressing room and cry. He really wasn’t being bad. I worked with him later and then I understood it was just a put on. But he knew how to get to you!”

James Stewart talks with Sonseeahray (Debra Paget) in "Broken Arrow" ('50 20th Century Fox).“I tested for ‘Broken Arrow’. Jimmy Stewart took the time to test with us, which was not usually done at that time by major stars, they’d have a contract player work with you. But he took all that time to work with Jeff Chandler and I which made a great deal of difference in our getting the parts. In a scene, if Jimmy thought Jeff, who was a gentle, quiet man, or I could do better, he would blow it and they’d have to cut. And he’d whisper to us, you can do this better…focus in. He was just a beautiful human being. I want to cry, thinking about his recent passing. I loved that man, and I love that film. It was my first starring billing.”

As to the contact lenses she was forced to wear to make her look the part of Indian maiden Sonseeahray in “Broken Arrow”, Debra reveals, “The contact lenses were a problem. They weren’t like they are today—not plastic—but GLASS! They covered the entire eye! They dyed the color in them. The light would heat them up and they dried the eyeball. You would sometimes be shot in profile, so only one contact had to be in your eye. The heat would turn that eye to hamburger. They were supposed to stay in 15 minutes—but it would turn into four hours! I’d see rainbows for half an hour after taking them out. Once, when I put the contacts on a table by the shore, they fell into the river! The entire crew was on their knees feeling, trying to find the contact lenses. Finally, my mother had to send off for spares. I still have the originals—they are humdingers.”

Regarding other incidents making “Broken Arrow”, Debra laughingly says, “The White Mountain Apaches—400 of them—were hired, and sent to Sedona, Arizona. The women had long black hair, but by the time they arrived, they had cut their hair off and given themselves Toni Home Permanents because they were ‘going to be in the movies.’ The studio sent to Hollywood for wigs, and that delayed us. They put mops on some of the Indian women. It was so cute! Sedona Lodge was where we stayed, and at the time, it was wilderness. To go to a store you had to drive to Flagstaff. It was fabulous, but I couldn’t find it anymore when I went there later. It had grown so. ‘Broken Arrow’ is now the name of a residential area…they named the streets after the characters, like Tom Jeffords Blvd., Cochise Avenue, Sonseeahray Street. It’s kind of cute, but also sad to see all that beautiful territory disappear.”

Jeff Chandler as Cochise, Paget and James Stewart speak with a miner in "Broken Arrow".

Perhaps the most memorable story deals with the film’s star, James Stewart. “I was so young that I was told, ‘Don’t ever tell him your age. Lie and say you’re 17.’ Well, I had a birthday on the set, and when Jimmy saw the number of candles, he screamed, ‘Oh my God, I’m a dirty old man!’ (Laughs) We had a lot of bad weather—it would wash away the set! We got way behind schedule, and Jimmy’s fiancée, Gloria, came up there. A week after we finished, they were married.”

Robert Wagner, Jeffery Hunter as Little Dog, and Debra Paget as Appearing Day in Fox's "White Feather" ('55 20th Century Fox).“White Feather” five years later was a remake of “Broken Arrow.” “But, they changed it a lot. I didn’t know it was to have been a remake until later. Jeffrey Hunter and I were in that version.”

Asked if “Seven Angry Men” (released by Allied Artists and produced by Vincent M. Fennelly) was a loan out, Debra says, “I thought it came out of Fox. We filmed ‘Seven Angry Men’ at Fox. A lot of fine young men, like Dennis Weaver and John Smith, who later became stars, were in it. None were well-known at the time except for Jeff Hunter. It was done at the Fox Ranch.”

Regarding one of her most famous co-stars, Elvis Presley, “Elvis and I did the ‘Milton Berle’ show 3 months before we did ‘Love Me Tender.’ I didn’t notice Elvis because I had a tough dance number; my mother was there when we did it. Elvis did have a scene with Milton that had something to do about me…and I may have come on at the end, I don’t recall. I was more concerned with that crazy dance—I kept throwing my hip out—they had a woman

Richard Egan and Debra Paget look after the wounded Elvis Presley in "Love Me Tender" ('56 20th Century Fox).on the set who pushed it back in! I just did the job and tried to stay out of pain! (Laughs). Three months later we did ‘Love Me Tender.’ My brother Frank Griffin used the name Ruell Shayne in that. He had a bit, but he did have a lead in ‘Teenage Crime Wave.’ He’s done a couple of Charles Starrett westerns, a western with Guy Madison, and a cult Science-Fiction film, ‘The Giant Claw.’ He’s now a top makeup man. Originally ‘Love Me Tender’ had no songs. Elvis didn’t want to sing, but they wanted to

Elvis and Debra "came together like a couple of children" during the filming of "Love Me Tender".cash in, so he did sing in the movie. I didn’t know Elvis was to do the picture until it was time to do the film. I was very shy, very quiet and very immature for my age. I was in my very early 20’s but I was emotionally more like a 16 year old. Elvis and I just sort of came together like a couple of children really. Following the film, he did ask me to marry him (Smiles) but my parents objected to my getting married. I cared about Elvis, but being one not to disobey my parents, that did not take place. (Laughs) He was a precious, humble, lovely person. Elvis had a lot of talent; there was a lot of depth they never used. He could have been a fine actor.”

As to school and child stars…“I attended the Fox school which still had Shirley Temple’s old school teacher. Merry Anders and Billy Gray were in school with me. I actually graduated from Hollywood Professional School—but by that time I didn’t know anybody so I skipped the prom. Since you are at a studio school, every year you have to go downtown to take a test—to make sure the studio wasn’t cheating, and you really were getting an education. One year, Elizabeth Taylor wanted to go visit her fiancée, and she needed to get ready—do her hair and all. She blinked those long black lashes at the male teacher—and he let her go! (Laughs) Since I played older parts, my day might consist of doing love scenes—then doing math—then back to the love scenes. You had to have good concentration. They gave you four hours of schooling and four hours of working—and they didn’t let you go one minute over! I missed a lot of magazine covers because of it!”

As for Dale Robertson, her co-star in “Gambler From Natchez”, “Dear Dale. Dale and I go back to when I was 15 years old at Fox. He was a great friend of my mother’s—everybody liked my mom. Dale was a great guy—we had good times together, so I knew him long before we did ‘Gambler From Natchez’. It was the first time I did anything spiffy. Usually, I was very sedate, very ladylike, very shy. I sort of turned loose in that one. I broke my finger in a fight scene with Lisa Daniels. I stoved into her and broke it in about three places. For about four nights I couldn’t sleep I was in so much pain. Finally, I went in to see the studio nurse. They put my finger in a little nude colored cast so I could continue working.”

Title card for "The Gambler from Natchez" starring Dale Robertson and Debra Paget.

Debra appeared on one episode of TV’s “Cimarron City” starring George Montgomery.  “It was fun working with George—I had a good part, and it was one of the first things George Hamilton did.”

Buffalo hunter Robert Taylor's sadistic nature comes through in his treatment of Indian girl Debra Paget in "The Last Hunt" ('56 MGM).When asked about her most influential director, it had to be Delmer Daves. “He directed me at 16, 18 and 21 in ‘Broken Arrow,’ ‘Bird of Paradise’ and ‘Demetrius and the Gladiators.’ Of course, Cecil B. DeMille was a great director—I worked with him for a whole year on my personal favorite film, ‘The Ten Commandments’. That picture took two years to complete. Unfortunately, all my scenes were shot in Hollywood—only Charlton Heston and Yul Brynner had to go to Egypt. But it was an ordeal, just the same. I was wearing the same costume for 3 or 4 months! They wouldn’t clean it, because it was supposed to look dirty! I like animals, but goats, camels, cows and dogs in the dust—blah! The goats would be chewing on my costume. DeMille personally chose me for the part. He told me he felt the hand of God was always on my career! I did ‘Omar Khayyam’ later—but it was nothing like this.”

Eastern girl Debra Paget is confrontational with Don Durant on TV's "Johnny Ringo: East to East" ('60).Reminiscing of other wonderful times making movies, Debra recalls, “I went to Hawaii for ‘Bird of Paradise.’ I went to Acapulco, Mexico; all these places I saw in their virgin states—no hotels and people. I learned to swim in Delmer Daves’ swimming pool. I always had a dream I would drown. When we did ‘Broken Arrow,’ we went to Oak Creek Canyon creek, which was bottomless. My mother and I went with another cast lady, Argentina Brunetti. Some Indian boys pushed the raft away, and I went under three times! Argentina Brunetti tried to help; finally a young man pulled me out, and got me breathing. Delmer Daves said, ‘Stay away from water—until we finish the picture.’ Six months later, when we did ‘Bird of Paradise,’ he asked me, ‘Do you swim?’ He apparently forgot I almost drowned on the last picture. I had to swim 3 hours a day for a month, before we started that movie. The first couple of days, the chaperone tried to teach me. I was afraid of even touching the water. They made me a vest and tied it to a bamboo pole—I swam like a fish eventually, and I never had that dream again!”

On “Bird of Paradise,” there were 50 island girls hired to jump off a boat. “They were not well endowed—so the studio wanted to put pads or falsies in the sarongs. But the girls balked. They wouldn’t let them be put in. Finally they put them in themselves—and when the director called ‘Action,’ they jumped off the boat and the falsies came off! From island to island, the story preceded us! They later called it Falsie Bay.”

Clint Eastwood and Debra on "Rawhide: Hostage Child" 9'62).A most common question asked western ladies is “Can you ride?” Many fib that they can, but Debra Paget could tell them the truth. “I love to ride—when my brother was 16, he wanted a car. My parents thought that too dangerous, so they got him a horse! I was 12, so we went to Griffith Park where they boarded the horses. I loved riding—loved being on a horse. I only stopped riding when I moved to Houston—it was too humid! I would pass out from the heat, but now I am adjusted to it.”

Today, Debra maintains a hectic schedule with her religious activities. She strongly feels the morals today in films need to return to better values.

Debra’s Western Filmography

Movies: Broken Arrow (‘50 20th Century Fox)—James Stewart; Gambler From Natchez (‘54 20th Century Fox)—Dale Robertson; Seven Angry Men (‘55 Allied Artists)—Raymond Massey; White Feather (‘55 20th Century Fox)—Robert Wagner; Last Hunt (‘56 MGM)—Robert Taylor; Love Me Tender (‘56 20th Century Fox)—Elvis Presley. TV: 20th Century Fox Hour: Gun In His Hand (‘56); Wagon Train: Marie Dupree Story (‘58); Wagon Train: Stagecoach Story (‘59); Cimarron City: Beauty and the Sorrow (‘59); Riverboat: The Unwilling (‘59); Johnny Ringo: East Is East (‘60); Rawhide: Incident in the Garden of Eden (‘60); Tales of Wells Fargo: Man of Another Breed (‘61); Rawhide: Hostage Child (‘62).

 

 

 

 

GREAT BRITAIN AND UNITED KINGDOM

GREAT BRITAIN AND 

UNITED KINGDOM

The 1707 Acts of Union declared that the kingdoms of England and Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain", though the new state is also described in the Acts as the

"Kingdom of Great Britain", "United Kingdom of Great Britain" and "One Kingdom".[30][31][note 12] The term "United Kingdom" is found in use as a description, but not a name, during the 18th century, and the country has occasionally been referred to in later centuries as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain" although its full official name, from 1707 to 1800, was simply "Great Britain", without a "long form".[32][33][34][35][36] The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland and the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" was adopted.[37]

Although the United Kingdom, as a sovereign state, is a country, England, Scotland, Wales and, to a lesser degree, Northern Ireland are also regarded as countries, though they are not sovereign states.[38][39] Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government.[40][41] The British Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom.[19] Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve NUTS 1 regions of the United Kingdom, also refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".[42][43] Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".[44][45] 





With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".[46]

The term "Great Britain" refers conventionally to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.[47][48][49] However, it is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.[50] GB and GBR are the standard country codes for the United Kingdom (see ISO 3166-2 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3) and are consequently used by international organisations to refer to the United Kingdom. Additionally, the United Kingdom's Olympic team competes under the name "Great Britain" or "Team GB".[51][52]

The term "Britain" is used both as a synonym for Great Britain,[53][54][55] and as a synonym for the United Kingdom.[56][55] Usage is mixed, with the BBC preferring to use Britain as shorthand only for Great Britain[57] and the British Government, although accepting that both terms refer to the United Kingdom, preferring, in most cases, to use the term UK rather than Britain.[58] While the UK Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (whose definitions are the "authoritative geographical names of the United Kingdom") lists "United Kingdom" and "UK or U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, but does not list "Britain",[59] it has been used "informally" by government websites.[60]

The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom. The term has no definite legal connotation, but is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and matters to do with nationality.[61] People of the United Kingdom use a number of different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British; or as being English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish, or Irish;[62] or as being both.[63]

In Welsh, the long form name of the state is "Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon", with "Teyrnas Unedig" being used as a short form name on government websites.[64] However, it is usually abbreviated to "DU" for the mutated form "Y Deyrnas Unedig". In Scottish Gaelic, the long form is "Rìoghachd Aonaichte Bhreatainn is Èireann a Tuath" and the short form "Rìoghachd Aonaichte".

History
See also: History of the British Isles
Background
Main articles: History of England, History of Wales, History of Scotland, History of Ireland, and History of the formation of the United Kingdom

The stones of Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, were 
erected between 2400 and 2200 BC
Settlement by anatomically modern humans of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.[65] By the end of the region's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland.[66] The Roman conquest, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales, Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland).[67] Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.[68] Meanwhile, Gaelic-speakers in north-west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)[69][70] united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.[71]

The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings,
1066, and the events leading to it

In 1066, the Normans and their Breton allies invaded England from northern France and after its conquest, seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture.[72] The Anglo-Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, each of the local cultures.[73] Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and made an unsuccessful attempt to annex Scotland. Following the Declaration of Arbroath, Scotland maintained its independence, albeit in near-constant conflict with England. The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.[74]

The early modern period saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country.[75] Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England,[76] and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.[77] In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.[78]

In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a personal union when James VI, King of Scots, inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.[79][80]

In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.[81][82] During the 17th and 18th centuries, British sailors were involved in acts of piracy (privateering), attacking and stealing from ships off the coast of Europe and the Caribbean.[83]


The State House in St. George's, Bermuda. Settled in 1612, the town is the oldest continuously-inhabited English town in the New World.

Although the monarchy was restored, the Interregnum ensured (along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689, and the Claim of Right Act 1689) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system.[84] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power (and the interest in voyages of discovery) led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America.[85][86]

Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments

Treaty of Union
Main article: History of the United Kingdom

The Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom
 encompassing all Great Britain
On 1 May 1707, the united Kingdom of Great Britain came into being, the result of Acts of Union being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union and so unite the two kingdoms.[87][88][89]

In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole, in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of Jacobite Uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the British throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, after which the Scottish Highlanders were brutally suppressed. The British colonies in North America that broke away from Britain in the American War of Independence became the United States of America, recognised by Britain in 1783. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India.[90]

During the 18th century, Britain was involved in the Atlantic slave trade. British ships transported an estimated two million slaves from Africa to the West Indies. Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. The world's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London in 1839.[91][92][93]

Union with Ireland
Main article: Acts of Union 1800
The term "United Kingdom" became official in 1801 when the parliaments of Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.[94]

Painting of a bloody battle. Horses and infantry fight or lie on grass.
The Battle of Waterloo, 1815, marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the start of Pax Britannica

In the early 19th century, the British-led Industrial Revolution began to transform the country. Gradually political power shifted away from the old Tory and Whig landowning classes towards the new industrialists. An alliance of merchants and industrialists with the Whigs would lead to a new party,

the Liberals, with an ideology of free trade and laissez-faire. In 1832 Parliament passed the Great Reform Act, which began the transfer of political power from the aristocracy to the middle classes. In the countryside, enclosure of the land was driving small farmers out. Towns and cities began to swell with a new urban working class. Few ordinary workers had the vote, and they created their own organisations in the form of trade unions.[citation needed]

After the defeat of France at the end of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), Great Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).[95] Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"),

a period of relative peace among the Great Powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman.[96][97][98][99] By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world".[100] 

The British Empire was expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.[101][102] Domestically, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During the century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses.[103] To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere.

Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions.[104] After the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance was challenged by Germany and the United States.[105]

Social reform and home rule for Ireland were important domestic issues after 1900. The Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote before 1914.[106]

Black-and-white photo of two dozen men in military uniforms and metal helmets sitting or standing in a muddy trench.

Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme (more than 885,000 British soldiers died on the battlefields of the First World War)

Britain fought alongside France, Russia and (after 1917) the United States, against Germany and its allies in the First World War (1914–1918).[107] British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western front.[108] The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order.

After the war, Britain received the League of Nations mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. The British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth 20% of the world's land surface and 25% a quarter of its population.[109] However, Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.[108]

Irish independence
Main article: Anglo-Irish Treaty

The rise of Irish nationalism, and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule, led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921.[110] The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931. 

Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.[111] A wave of strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the war when the Great Depression (1929–1932) occurred. This led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest in the 1930s, with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.[112]

Britain entered the Second World War by declaring war on Nazi Germany in 1939 after Germany had invaded Poland. Winston Churchill became prime minister and head of a coalition government in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year of the war, Britain and its Empire continued the fight alone against Germany. In 1940, the Royal Air Force defeated the German Luftwaffe in a struggle for control of the skies in the Battle of Britain. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz. There were also eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic, the North Africa campaign and the Burma campaign. British forces played an important role in the Normandy landings of 1944, achieved with its United States ally.

Since the Second World War

COIN OF SCOTLAND

Main articles: Political history of the United Kingdom (1945–present) and Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)
Map of the world. Canada, the eastern United States, countries in East Africa, India, most of Australasia and some other countries are highlighted in pink.
Map showing territories that were at one time part of the British Empire, with the United Kingdom and its current British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies underlined in red





After the end of the Second World War in 1945,

Map showing territories that were at one time part of the British Empire, with the United Kingdom and its current British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies underlined in red






the UK was one of the Big Four powers (along with the U.S., the Soviet Union, and China) who met to plan the post-war world;[113][114] it was an original signatory to the Declaration of the United Nations.

The UK became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and worked closely with the United States to establish the IMF, World Bank and NATO.[115][116] However, the war left the UK severely weakened and depending financially on the Marshall Plan.

[117] In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government initiated a radical programme of reforms, which had a significant effect on British society in the following decades.[118] Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created.[119] The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's now much-diminished economic position,

so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.[120] Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence. Many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.[121]

The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself: fourteen British Overseas Territories[24] and three Crown dependencies.[24][166]





The fourteen British Overseas Territories are: 

Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory; the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands; the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus.[167] 

British claims in Antarctica are not universally recognised, mainly by Argentina, whose claims cover a majority of the British sector.[168] Collectively Britain's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of 1,727,570 square kilometres (667,018 sq mi) and a population of approximately 260,000 people.[169]

They are the last remaining remnants of the British Empire and a 1999 UK government white paper stated that: "[The] Overseas Territories are British for as long as they wish to remain British. Britain has willingly granted independence where it has been requested; and we will continue to do so where this is an option."[170] Self-determination is also enshrined into the constitutions of several overseas territories and three have specifically voted to remain under British sovereignty (Bermuda in 1995,[171] Gibraltar in 2002[172] and the Falkland Islands in 2013).