ISABELLA MARIA BOYD ,CONFEDERATE SPY BORN 1844 MAY 9 - 1900 JUNE 11

 

ISABELLA MARIA BOYD ,CONFEDERATE SPY 

BORN 1844 MAY 9 - 1900 JUNE 11

Isabella Maria Boyd (May 9, 1844[1] – June 11, 1900[2]), best known as Belle Boyd (or as Cleopatra of the Secession[citation needed] or Siren of the Shenandoah[citation needed]), was a Confederate spy in the American Civil War. She operated from her father's hotel in Front Royal, Virginia, and provided valuable information to Confederate General Stonewall Jackson in 1862.

Early life

Isabella Maria Boyd was born on May 9, 1844 in Martinsburg, Virginia (now part of West Virginia).[3] She was the eldest child of Benjamin Reed and Mary Rebecca (Glenn) Boyd.[4] She described her childhood as idyllic.[5] After some preliminary schooling in Martinsburg, she attended finishing school at the Mount Washington Female College in Baltimore, Maryland in 1856 at age 12.[6]

Southern spy

Boyd's espionage career began by chance. According to her highly fictionalized 1866 account, a band of Union army soldiers heard that she had Confederate flags in her room on July 4, 1861, and they came to investigate. They hung a Union flag outside her home. Then one of the men cursed at her mother, which enraged Boyd. She pulled out a pistol and shot the man, who died some hours later. A board of inquiry exonerated her of murder, but sentries were posted around the house and officers kept close track of her activities. She profited from this enforced familiarity, charming at least one of the officers whom she named in her memoir as Captain Daniel Keily,[7] She wrote in her memoir that she was indebted to Keily "for some very remarkable effusions, some withered flowers, and a great deal of important information."[8] She conveyed those secrets to Confederate officers via her slave Eliza Hopewell, who carried them in a hollowed-out watch case. Boyd was caught on her first attempt at spying and told that she could be sentenced to death, and she realized that she needed to find a better way to communicate.

General James Shields and his staff gathered in the parlor of the local hotel in mid-May 1862. Boyd hid in the closet in the room, eavesdropping through a knothole that she enlarged in the door. She learned that Shields had been ordered east from Front Royal, Virginia. That night, she rode through Union lines, using false papers to bluff her way past the sentries, and reported the news to Colonel Turner Ashby, who was scouting for the Confederates. She then returned to town. When the Confederates advanced on Front Royal on May 23, Boyd ran to greet Stonewall Jackson's men, avoiding enemy fire that put bullet holes in her skirt.[citation needed] She urged an officer to inform Jackson that "the Yankee force is very small [...] Tell him to charge right down and he will catch them all."[9] Jackson did and wrote a note of gratitude to her: "I thank you, for myself and for the army, for the immense service that you have rendered your country today."[10][11] For her contributions, she was awarded the Southern Cross of Honor.[citation needed] Jackson also gave her captain and honorary aide-de-camp positions.[12]

Boyd was arrested at least six times but somehow evaded incarceration.[13] By late July 1862, detective Allan Pinkerton had assigned three men to work on her case.[14] She was finally captured by Union officials on July 29, 1862, after her lover gave her up, and they brought her to the Old Capitol Prison in Washington, D.C. the next day.[15][16] An inquiry was held[by whom?] on August 7, 1862 concerning violations of orders that Boyd be kept in close custody.[17] She was held for a month before being released on August 29, 1862, when she was exchanged at Fort Monroe.[18] She was arrested again in June 1863, but was released after contracting typhoid fever.[19]

In March 1864, Boyd attempted to travel to England, but she was intercepted by a Union blockade and sent to Canada.[19] where she met Union naval officer Samuel Wylde Hardinge. The two later married in England.[19] and had a daughter named Grace.[20] Boyd became an actress in England after her husband's death to support her daughter.[citation needed] Following the death of her husband in 1866,[citation needed] she and her daughter returned to the United States.[20] Boyd assumed the stage name Nina Benjamin to perform in several cities, eventually ending up in New Orleans where she married John Swainston Hammond in March 1869, a former British Army officer who fought for the Union Army during the Civil War.[21] They had two sons and two daughters; their first son died as an infant. Boyd divorced Hammond in 1884 and married Nathaniel Rue High in 1885. She subsequently began touring the country giving dramatic lectures of her life as a Civil War spy.[21]

Post-War years and death

Belle Boyd's grave

Boyd published a highly fictionalized narrative of her war experiences in the two-volume Bell Boyd in Camp and Prison.[22] She died of a heart attack in Kilbourn City, Wisconsin (Wisconsin Dells) on June 11, 1900 at age 56. She was buried in the Spring Grove Cemetery in Wisconsin Dells, with members of the Grand Army of the Republic as her pallbearers.[23] For years, her grave simply read:

BELLE BOYD

CONFEDERATE SPY

BORN IN VIRGINIA

DIED IN WISCONSIN

ERECTED BY A COMRADE[24]

Known as the "Cleopatra of the Secession," Belle Boyd was a spy for the Confederacy during the U.S. Civil War and went on to write a book about her experiences.

Who Was Belle Boyd?

Belle Boyd became a Confederate spy before her 18th birthday. Her Civil War missions often involved transporting information and supplies to Southern troops, and her age allowed her to go virtually unnoticed by Union soldiers. Once the press got a hold of her story and made her famous, Boyd was regularly arrested, although she was never held for more than a few months. She eventually moved to England, where she wrote a book about her spy-related exploits. An actress later in life, Boyd died on stage in Wisconsin in June 1900, at age 56.

Early Life

Maria Isabella "Belle" Boyd was born on May 9, 1844 (some sources say 1843), in Martinsburg, Virginia (now West Virginia), to Mary Rebecca Glenn Boyd and Benjamin Reed Boyd, a shopkeeper. Hers was a prosperous family with deep Southern roots. From the start, Boyd was a strong-willed, high-spirited and quick-witted person. She once rode a horse into the family's home during a party after being told she was too young to attend. According to Karen Abbott's Liar Temptress Soldier Spy, Boyd told her parents and party guests "my horse is old enough, isn't he?" She enjoyed a comfortable upbringing and was educated at the Mount Washington Female College. Before the winter before the Civil War's start, Boyd lived a charmed life as a debutante in Washington, D.C.

Her home town of Martinsburg was largely filled with Union supporters, but her family believed in the Confederate cause. Her father had even volunteered for the Virginia infantry. It was one of the first towns the Union took when the Civil War began. On July 3, 1861, Union soldiers entered Martinsburg following a skirmish at the nearby town of Falling Waters The following day, a group of soldiers came into the Boyd residence. One of the men got into a confrontation with Boyd's mother. As Boyd later wrote in her memoir, the soldier “addressed my mother and myself in language as offensive as it is possible to conceive. I could stand it no longer." She promptly shot and killed the man. After the Union commanding officer investigated, he said Boyd had acted properly in the situation, and she suffered no repercussions. With that one act, Boyd’s career as the “Rebel Spy" was underway, at age 17.

“Cleopatra of the Secession”

Boyd started out as an informal spy, gathering what information she could. Her talents as a flirt helped her extract information from Union soldiers. She wrote down her discoveries in letters that she got to the Confederate side with the help of her slave or a young neighbor. One of these missives was intercepted and Boyd found herself in hot water with the Union. Despite facing possible execution for her crime, Boyd managed to get off with a warning.

Undaunted, Boyd decided to serve the South in a more official capacity. She became a messenger for Confederate generals P.G.T. Beauregard and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson. Boyd started out as a courier, carrying information and transporting medical supplies. By the time she was 18, word of her identity and activities became widely circulated, and Boyd found herself something of a celebrity. The press latched on to her with verve, calling her the “Cleopatra of the Secession,” “La Belle Rebelle," the “Siren of the Shenandoah" and the “Rebel Joan of Arc." Her high profile soon led to her imprisonment, however, although she was only held a week and continued her espionage work upon her release.  

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One of her most notable accomplishments as a spy came in May 1862. She managed to obtain information crucial to the Confederate cause and gave her side the details needed to help Stonewall Jackson's forces recapture the town of Front Royal. But two months later, Boyd once again got arrested for her work for Confederacy. 

Arrest and Banishment

After this arrest, Boyd was sent to Old Capitol Prison in Washington, D.C. where she spent a month behind bars. She had a longer prison stay the following year, being incarcerated for five months. Boyd then banished to the South, but she refused to stop her work. Instead of remaining cooped up, she set sail for England in May 1864 to transport Confederate papers there. But her ship was stopped by a Union naval ship and  she was again arrested as a spy. Boyd fell in love with one of her captors, a Union officer named Samuel Hardinge. The pair later married and had a daughter together. As she explained in her memoir, she thought that she might be able to woo him to the Confederate side. Hardinge did serve time in prison for giving aid to Boyd.

Despite being apprehended again, Boyd somehow convinced the Union authorities to let her go to Canada. From there, she made her way to England. Boyd turned to writing about her war adventures as a way to make money. She penned in the 1865 memoir Belle Boyd, in Camp and Prison, which also featured contributions from her husband Hardinge on his time in prison.  Boyd also launched a career as an actress. 

Return to the United States and Death

Returning to the United States, Boyd kept performing. John Swainston Hammond, a former Union officer, attended one of her shows and was smitten. The couple married in 1869 and had four children together. Their union ended in divorce in 1884. The charming Southern belle did not remain single for long, however, Boyd married for the third time in 1885 to a young actor named Nathaniel Rue High. To support herself and her family, she returned to the stage in 1886. Boyd took her final bow on fourteen years later. She died on June 11, 1900, during a performance in Wisconsin. She was 56 years old.

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Citation Information

Article Title

Belle Boyd Biography

Author

Biography.com Editors

Website Name

The Biography.com website

ISABELLA DECREED ALL MUSLIMS MUST BE CONVERTED IF NOT THEY WILL EXILE 1502 FEBRUARY 12

 

ISABELLA DECREED ALL MUSLIMS 

MUST BE CONVERTED IF NOT THEY 

WILL EXILE 1502 FEBRUARY 12

The Moorish Proselytes of Archbishop Ximenes,
Granada, 1500 by Edwin Long (1829–1891),
 depicting a mass baptism of Muslims

அட்லாண்டிக்கைக் கடந்து பயணம் செய்வதற்கு கிறிஸ்டோபர் கொலம்பசுக்குக பணவுதவியளித்த அரசியாகவே காஸ்டீல் பகுதியைச் சேர்ந்த முதலாம் இசபெல்லா அரசியைப் பற்றி இன்று பலருக்குத் தெரியும். அவர் திறமையும், ஆற்றலுமிக்க அரசியாவார். அவர் செய்த முக்கிய முடிவுகள் ஸ்பெயினையும் லத்தீன் அமெரிக்காவையும் பல நூற்றாண்டுகளாகப் பாதித்தன. அவை இன்று பல கோடி மக்களையும், மறைமுகமாகப் பாதித்துள்ளன.

அவர் தமது முக்கியத் திட்டங்களைப் பற்றி தம்மைப் போன்று அறிவாற்றலும் திறமையுமுள்ள தம் கணவரான ரகான் பகுதியைச் சேர்ந்த பெர்டினாண்டைக் கலந்து பேசியே முடிவெடுத்தார். அவர் ஒத்துழைப்புடனே தான் அவற்றைச் செயல்படுத்தினார். ஆகவே அவர்கள் இருவரையும் ஒன்றாகவே இந்நூலில் பார்ப்பது பொருந்தும். ஆயினும், இக்கட்டுரையின் தலைப்பில் இசபெல்லாவின் பெயரே இருக்கின்றது. இருவரின் பெயர்களும் இல்லை. எனவே, பல முக்கிய முடிவுகளில் அரசியின் கருத்துரைகளே ஏற்றுக் கொள்ளப்பட்டன.

1451 ஆம் ஆண்டில் இன்றைய ஸ்பெயினின் ஒரு பகுதியான காஸ்டீல் அரசில் மாட்ரிகல் நகரில் இசபெல்லா பிறந்தார். அவர் கடுமையான சமயப் பயிற்சி பெற்றார். அதனால் சமயப் பற்றுள்ள கத்தோலிக்கராக வளர்ந்தார். அவருடைய சகோதரரான நான்காம் ஹென்றி 1454 முதல் காஸ்டீலின் அரசராக இருந்தார். 1474 இல் அவர் இறந்தார். அப்போது ஸ்பெயின் அரசு இல்லை. இன்றைய ஸ்பெயின் நிலப்பரப்பு நான்கு முடியரசுகளாகப் பிரிந்திருந்தது. காஸ்டீல் அவற்றுள் மிகப் பெரியது. ஆரகான் இன்றைய ஸ்பெயின் வட கிழக்குப் பகுதி கிரானடா தெற்கிலும் நவார் வடக்கிலும் இருந்தன.

1460களின் இறுதிப் பகுதிகளில் காஸ்டீல் அரசின் வாரிசாக இருந்தார். ஆகவே பல இளவரசர்கள் அவரை மணம்புரிய விரும்பினர். அவருடைய சகோதரர் நான்காம் ஹென்றி அவர் போர்ச்சுகள்ல மன்னரை மணக்க வேண்டுமென்று விரும்பினார். ஆயினும் 1469இல் இசபெல்லா தம் 18 ஆம் வயதில் ஹென்றி மன்னரின் எதிர்ப்பையும் பாராமல் ஆரகான் அரசின் வாரிசான பெர்டினாண்டை மணந்தார். இசபெல்லா தமக்குப்

பணியாததைக் கண்டு சினங்கொண்ட ஹென்றி தம் மகளாகிய ஜூவானாவைத் தமக்கு வாரிசாக நியமித்தார். ஆயினும், 1474இல் ஹென்றி இறந்ததும், இசபெல்லா காஸ்டீல் அரசுக்கு உரிமை கொண்டாடினார். ஜூவானாவின் ஆதரவாளர்கள் இதை ஏற்க மறுத்தனர். ஆகவே உள்நாட்டுப் போர் மூண்டது. 1479இல் பிப்ரவரியில் இசபெல்லாவின் படைகள் வெற்றி பெற்றன. அதே ஆண்டில் ஆரகான் அரசர் 2 ஆம் ஜான் இறந்தார். பெர்டினாண்டு ஆரகான் அரசரானார். அதன் பிறகு பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் ஸ்பெயினின் பெரும்பகுதியை ஆண்டனர்.

ஆரகான், காஸ்டீல் ஆகிய அரசுகளும் அவற்றின் அரசாங்க நிறுவனங்களும் தனித்தனியாகவே இருந்த போதிலும், நடைமுறையில் பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் ஒன்று சேர்ந்தே எல்லாவற்றையும் தீர்மானித்தனர். தம்மாலியன்ற வரையில் ஸ்பெயினின் இணை அரசர்களாகச் செயலாற்றினர். அவர்களுடைய 25 ஆண்டு இணை ஆட்சி முழுவதும் ஒரு வலிமைமிக்க முடியாட்சியின் கீழுள்ள ஒருங்கிணைந்த ஸ்பானிய அரசை நிறுவுவதே அவர்களது அடிப்படைக் கொள்கையாக இருந்தது. கிரானடா மட்டும் இன்னம் ஐபீரியத் தீபகற்பத்தில் முஸ்லிம் ஆட்சியிலிருந்தது. அதைப் பிடிப்பதே அவர்களுடைய முதல் திட்டமாக இருந்தது. 1481 இல் போர் தொடங்கியது. ஜனவரி 1492 இல் அது முடிவடைந்தது. பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் முற்றிலும் வெற்றி பெற்றனர். கிரானடா பிடிபட்டதும், ஸ்பெயின் ஏறக்குறைய இன்றுள்ள எல்லைப் பரப்பைப் பெற்றது. (இசபெல்லா இறந்தபின், 1512இல் பெர்டினாண்டு சிறிய அரசான நவாரைக் கைப்பற்றினார்.)

பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் தமது ஆட்சியின் தொடக்கத்திலேயே ஸ்பானிய கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்தை நிறுவினர். அம்மன்றம் ஒரு சமய நீதிமன்றமாகும். அது நீதிபதி, சான்று நடுவர், குற்றஞ்சாட்டும் வழக்குரைஞர், புலனாயும் காவலர் ஆகியோரின் அதிகாரங்களை ஒருங்கே பெற்றிருந்தது. அது கொடிய தண்டனைகளை வழங்கி, அநீதியான நடைமுறைகளைப் பயன்படுத்தும் மன்றமெனப் பெயர் பெற்றிருந்தது. குற்றம் சாட்டப் பெற்றோர் அதை மறுத்து வாதாட வாய்ப்புப் பெறவில்லை. அவர்களுக்கு எதிரான சான்றுகள் அனைத்தும், அவர்களைக் குற்றம் சாட்டுவோரின் பெயர்கள்கூட அவர்களுக்கு அறிவிக்கப்படுவதில்லை. தமக்கு எதிரான குற்றச்சாட்டினை மறுத்தோர் அவற்றை ஏற்கும்வரை கொடிய சித்திரவதைக்குள்ளாயினர். ஸ்பானிய கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்தின்முதல் 25 ஆண்டுகளில் மிகக் குறைந்த மதிப்பீட்டின்படி 2000 பேர் கம்பத்தில் கட்டப்பட்டு எரிக்கப்பட்டனர். அதைப் போல் பன்மடங்கு அதிகமான தொகையினர் குறைந்த தண்டனை பெற்றனர்.

தோமாஸ் தெ தோர்குவமாதா என்னும் சமய வெறியரான ஒரு துறவி ஸ்பானிய கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்திற்கு தலைவராக இருந்தார். அவர் இசபெல்லாவின் தனிச் சமய அறிவுரையாளர். கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம் போப்பாண்டவரின் இசைவு பெற்றிருந்த போதிலும், அது ஸ்பெயின் அரசர்களின் கட்டுப்பாட்டுக்கு அடங்கிச் செயலாற்றியது. சமய ஏற்பை நிலை நாட்டுவதற்காகவும், அரசர்களுக்கு எதிரான கிளர்ச்சியை ஒடுக்குவதற்காகவும் கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம் பயன்பட்டது.

இங்கிலாந்தில் நிலமானியப் பிரபுக்கள் அரசரின் அதிகாரத்தைக் கட்டுப்படுத்துவதற்குப் போதிய ஆற்றல் பெற்றிருந்தனர். ஸ்பானிய பிரபுக்களும் ஒரு காலத்தில் ஆற்றலுள்ளவர்களாக இருந்தனர். ஆயினும், ஸ்பெயின் அரசர்கள் தம்மை எதிர்த்த நிலமானியப் பிரபுக்களை அடக்குவதற்கு கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்தை ஒரு கருவியாகப் பயன்படுத்தினர். ஆகவே, அவர்கள் அதிகாரம் குவிந்த, வரையிறந்த ஒரு முடியாட்சியை நிறுவ முடிந்தது. அவர்கள் ஸ்பானிய மதக் குருக்களை கட்டுப்படுத்துவதற்கும் அம்மன்றத்தைப் பயன்படுத்தினர்.

சமயத்தை விட்டுப் பிரிந்தவர்களாகக் கருதப்பட்டவர்களை குறிப்பாக கத்தோலிக்க மறையைத் தழுவி, பிறகு, இரகசியமாகத் தம் முந்திய மதத்தையே பின்பற்றி வந்த யூதரையும், முஸ்லிம்களையும் தண்டிப்பது கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்தின் முக்கிய இலக்காக இருந்தது.

தொடக்கத்தில் கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம், தம் சமயத்தைப் பின்பற்றி வந்த யூதர்களை தண்டிக்கவில்லை. ஆயினும், 1492இல் சமய வெறியரான தோமாஸ் தெ தோர்குவமாதா வலியுறுத்தியதன் விளைவாக, பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் ஸ்பெயினிலுள்ள யூதர்கள் அனைவரும் கிறிஸ்தவ மறையைத் தழுவ வேண்டும், இல்லையெனில் நான்கு மாதங்களுக்குள் தம் சொத்துக்களை விட்டுவிட்டு, நாட்டை விட்டு வெளியேற வேண்டும் என்று ஆணை பிறப்பித்தனர்.

கிரானடா சரணடைந்த போது, கையொப்பமிடப் பெற்ற உடன்படிக்கையின்படி, ஸ்பெயினில் வாழும் முஸ்லிம்கள் தம் சமயத்தைப் பின்பற்றும் உரிமை பெற்றனர். ஆனால், ஸ்பெயின் அரசாங்கம் விரைவில் இவ்வொப்பந்தத்தை மீறியது. ஆகவே, முஸ்லிம்கள் புரட்சி செய்தனர். ஆனால், அவர்கள் தோற்கடிக்கப்பட்டனர். 10ஆண்டுகளுக்கு முன் யூதர்களுக்கு அளிக்கப்பட்ட அதே தேர்வுரிமை இப்போது 1502இல் முஸ்லிம்களுக்கும் கொடுக்கப்பெற்றது. அதாவது ஸ்பெயினில் வாழும் முஸ்லிம்கள் கிறிஸ்துவ மதத்தைத் தழுவ வேண்டும் அல்லது நாட்டை விட்டு வெளியேற வேண்டும்.

இசபெல்லா சமயப் பற்றுள்ள கத்தோலிக்கராக இருந்த போதிலும், அவருடைய வைதீகப் பற்று அவர் ஸ்பெயின் நாட்டின் மீது கொண்டிருந்த பற்றைக் குறைத்து விடவில்லை. ஸ்பானிய கத்தோலிக்க திருச்சபையில் போப்பாண்டவர் கட்டுப்பாட்டைக் குறைத்து, ஸ்பெயின் முடியரசின் அதிகாரத்தை வளர்ப்பதற்காக இசபெல்லாவும், பெர்டினாண்டும் பெரிதும் முயன்று வெற்றி பெற்றனர். 16 ஆம் நூற்றாண்டில் எதிர்ப்புச் சமய சீர்திருத்தம் பரவாவதற்கு இது ஒரு காரணமாகும்.

இசபெல்லாவின் ஆட்சியில் நிகழ்ந்த மிகவும் முக்கியமான நிகழ்ச்சி கிறிஸ்டோபர் கொலம்பஸ் புதிய உலகைக் கண்டுபிடித்ததுதான். அது 1492 ஆம் ஆண்டில் நடைபெற்றது. காஸ்டீல் அரசு கொலம்பசின் பயணத்திற்கு உதவியது. (அப்பயணத்திற்காக இசபெல்லா தம் நகைகளை அடகு வைத்தார் என்பது உண்மையன்று).

1504 இல் இசபெல்லா இறந்தார். அவர் தம் வாழ்நாளில் ஒரு புதல்வனையும், நான்கு புதல்விகளையும் பெற்றார். 1497இல் ஜூவான் எனும் மகன் இறந்தான். புதல்வியருள் புகழ் பெற்றவர் ஜூவானா. பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் ஜூவானாவை (எழில்மிகு) முதலாம் பிலிப்புக்கு மணமுடித்து வைத்தனர். பிலிப் ஆஸ்திரிய ஹாப்ஸ்பர்க் பேரரசரின் மகன். அவர் பர்கண்டி அரசின் வாரிசாகவும் இருந்தார். இந்த வம்ச வழி திருமணத்தின் பயனாக இசபெல்லாவின் பேரரான ஐந்தாம் சார்லஸ் பேரரசர் ஐரோப்பிய வரலாற்றில் மிகப் பெரிய பேரரசுகளுள் ஒன்றை மரபுரிமையாகப் பெற்றார். அவர் புனித ரோமானியப் பேரரசராகவும் தேர்ந்தெடுக்கப்பட்டார். அவர் அக்கால ஐரோப்பிய அரசர்களுள் செல்வமும், அதிகாரமுமிக்கவராகத் திகழ்ந்தார். ஸ்பெயின், ஜெர்மனி, ஹாலந்து, பெல்ஜியம், ஆஸ்திரியா, சுவிட்சர்லாந்து, இத்தாலியின் பெரும்பகுதி, பிரான்சின் சில பகுதிகள், செக்கோஸ்லாவிய, போலந்து, ஹங்கேரி, யூகோஸ்லாவியா இன்னும் மேற்கு நாடுகளில் பெரும்பகுதி ஆகியவற்றை அவர் நேராகவோ, பெயரளவிலோ ஆண்டு வந்தார். ஐந்தாம் சார்லசும் அவருடைய மகன் 2 ஆம் பிலிப்பும் சமயப்பற்றுள்ள கத்தோலிக்கர்கள். அவர்கள் வட ஐரோப்பிய எதிர்ப்பு சமய அரசுகளுடன் போர் புரிவதற்குப் புதிய உலகச் செல்வத்தைப் பயன்படுத்தினர். இவ்வாறாக, பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் ஏற்பாடு செய்த வம்சாவழித் திருமணம் அவர்கள் இறந்த பிறகு ஐரோப்பிய வரலாற்றை ஒரு நூற்றாண்டளவாகப் பாதித்தது.

பெர்டினாண்டு, இசபெல்லா ஆகியோரின் சாதனைகளையும் அவர்களது ஆட்சியின் விளைவுகளையும் இங்கு சுருக்கமாகப் பார்ப்போம். அவர்கள் தம் கூட்டு முயற்சியால் ஒன்றுபட்ட ஸ்பெயின் அரசை உருவாக்கினர். அதே எல்லைகளுடன் ஸ்பெயின் கடந்த 5 நூற்றாண்டுகளாக இருந்து வருகின்றது. அவர்கள் இருவரும் ஸ்பெயினில் அதிகாரம் குவிந்த, வரையிறந்த முடியாட்சியை நிறுவினர். அவர்கள் முஸ்லிம்களையும், யூதர்களையும், வெளியேற்றியதனால், வெளியேறியவர்களுக்கும், ஸ்பெயினுக்கும் பெரும் விளைவுகள் ஏற்பட்டன. அவர்களின் சமய வெறியும், அவர்கள் நிறுவிய கடும் விசாரணை மன்றமும் ஸ்பெயின் நாட்டின் வருங்கால வரலாற்றில் பெரும் விளைவுகளை ஏற்படுத்தின.

இறுதியில் குறிப்பிட்ட செய்தியை ஓரளவு விரிவாகப் பார்ப்போம். கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம் ஸ்பெயினின் அறிவு வளர்ச்சிக்குத் தடையாக இருந்தது. 1492 க்குப் பிந்திய நூற்றாண்டுகளில் மேற்கு ஐரோப்பிய நாடுகள் பலவற்றில் அறிவுத் துறையிலும், அறிவியல் துறையிலும் மலர்ச்சி ஏற்பட்டது. ஆனால், ஸ்பெயினில் அவ்வாறு நிகழவில்லை. மாறுபட்ட கருத்தைத் தெரிவித்தால் கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம் கைது செய்யும் எனும் அச்சம் நிலவிய சமூகத்தில் தனிப்பட்ட சிந்தனை தோன்றவில்லை என்பதில் வியப்பில்லை. பிற ஐரோப்பிய நாடுகள் பல்வேறு கருத்துகளை வெளியிட ஓரளவு உரிமையளித்தன. ஸ்பெயினில் கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம் வைதீக கத்தோலிக்க சமயக் கருத்துகளை மட்டும் அனுமதித்தது. பிற ஐரோப்பிய நாடுகளுடன் ஒப்பிடும் போது 1700இல் ஸ்பெயின் அறிவு தேக்க நிலையிலிருந்தது. பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் ஸ்பெயினில் கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்தை நிறுவி 500 ஆண்டுகளாயினும் அம்மன்றம் இறுதியில் கலைக்கப்பட்டு ஏறக்குறைய 140 ஆண்டுகளாயினும்இன்னும் ஸ்பெயின் அதன் விளைவுகளினின்று மீளவில்லை.

மேலும், இசபெல்லாவின் உதவியுடன் கொலம்பஸ் தம் பயணத்தை நடத்தியதால், தென் மத்திய அமெரிக்கப் பகுதிகள் பெரும்பாலும் ஸ்பெயினின் குடியேற்ற நாடகளாயின. இதனால் ஸ்பானியப் பண்பாடும், கடும் விசாரணை மன்றம் உட்பட பல நிறுவனங்களும் உலகில் மேற்குப் பகுதியில் பரவின. ஆகவே, மேற்கு ஐரோப்பாவுடன் ஒப்பிடும்போது, ஸ்பெயின் அறிவு வளர்ச்சியில் பின்தங்கிய நாடாக இருந்ததுபோல், தென் அமெரிக்காவிலுள்ள ஆங்கிலேயக் குடியேற்ற நாடுகளை விட அறிவுத் துறையில் குறைந்த வளர்ச்சியடைந்திருந்தன என்பதில் வியப்பில்லை.

இப்பட்டியலில் இசபெல்லாவுக்குக எந்த இடம் அளிப்பது என்பதை எண்ணும்போது, அவர் காலத்திலும் நிகழ்ந்த நிகழ்ச்சிகள் அவர் இல்லையென்றால் நிகழ்ந்திருக்குமா எனப் பார்க்க வேண்டும். சமயப் பகை உணர்வு ஏற்கெனவே ஸ்பெயினில் இருந்து வந்தது என்பது உண்மை. ஏனெனில், 700 ஆண்டுகளாக ஐபீரியத் தீபகற்பத்தை முஸ்லிம்களிடமிருந்து திரும்பக் கைப்பற்றுவதற்கு நீண்ட போராட்டம் நடைபெற்று வந்தது. ஆயினும், 1492இல் அப்போராட்டம் வெற்றியுடன் முடிவடைந்ததும், ஸ்பெயின் தனது பாதையைத் தெரிந்து கொள்ளும் வாய்ப்பைப் பெற்றிருந்த பெர்டினாண்டும், இசபெல்லாவும் குறிப்பாக இசபெல்லா, மறுப்பின்றி வைத்த கருத்துகளை ஏற்கும் பாதையைத் தெரிந்து கொண்டனர். இசபெல்லாவின் செல்வாக்கு இல்லையெனில், ஸ்பெயின் ஓரளவு பன்மைக் கருத்துகள் நிலவு சமூகமாக மாறியிருக்கும்.

இசபெல்லாவை, அவரைவிடப் புகழ்மிக்க ஆங்கிலேய அரசியான முதலாம் எலிசபெத்துடன் ஒப்பிடத் தோன்றலாம். எலிசபெத், இசபெல்லாவைப் போல திறமையுடையவர். மேலும், அவர் பண்பு நயமும், சகிப்புத் தன்மையுமுள்ளவராக இருந்ததால், இசபெல்லாவை விட போற்றுதற்குரியவராக இருக்கின்றார். ஆனால் அவர் இசபெல்லாவைப் போல் புதியன புனையும் திறமை பெறவில்லை. இசபெல்லாவின் கடும் விசாரணை மன்றத்தைப் போல அவருடைய செயல்கள் எதுவும் பெரும் விளைவுகளை ஏற்படுத்தவில்லை. இசபெல்லாவின் சில கொள்கைகள் அருவருக்கத்தக்கவையாக இருப்பினும், வரலாற்றில் ஒரு சில அரசர்களே அவரைப் போல பெரும் விளைவுகளை ஏற்படுத்தியுள்ளனர்.

Ferdinand and Isabella: The Making of the First World Power

Isabella of Castile by Luis de Madrazo | Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons

Isabella of Castile by Luis de Madrazo | Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons

Christopher Hohman

CHRISTOPHER HOHMAN

In April of 1451, at a secluded palace in Northern Spain, a young baby by the name of Princess Isabella of Castile was born. From the moment she was born the world was aligned against her. In truth, there were very few people who cared at all for the infant princess. Her older half-brother Enrique was poised to become the next king of Castile, and his children, when they came, were next in line to the throne. Isabella was nothing but a mere princess with no realistic prospect of becoming queen. However, despite the hardships she would face, this young infant princess would rise to become the maker of the most powerful kingdom and empire in the world.1

As Isabella grew, her family’s political position began to deteriorate. Her father, King Juan II, was heavily influenced by the callous and greedy general, Alvaro de Luna. King Juan, entirely uninterested in the affairs of state, allowed De Luna to have a free hand in the kingdom. Thus, by the time of King Juan’s death in 1454, Castile was plagued with corruption and dissent. His eldest son, Enrique IV was an even worse king. He was a great lover of debauchery, and many times he neglected his duties as king. By the end of his reign, the kingdom would be in complete disarray.2 Meanwhile, Isabella spent most of her time in seclusion with her now widowed mother. During this time, she developed a strong faith in God, and the rituals of the Catholic faith became the bedrock of her young life, as well as her primary source of strength and motivation. But for now, there was nothing she could do about the chaos consuming the kingdom.3 As Isabella’s childhood passed into her teenage years, the question on everyone’s mind was, who should the young princess marry. The hope for Isabella was that she would marry a man who could help bring unity to a fractured peninsula, and, in time, she would do just that.

For centuries, the Iberian peninsula had prospered as part of the Roman Empire. However, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, a power vacuum developed in Iberia. It was quickly filled by the fierce warrior-like Visigoths, who established their own kingdom throughout the peninsula as well as in southern France. For many centuries, the Visigoths prospered in Spain. They crafted intricate jewelry and introduced their own unique architectural style to the region. However, the most influential cultural impact they had was their adoption of Christianity. The importance of this decision cannot be understated. The new religion imbued its Iberian adherents with a fiery sense of purpose, an attribute that would lead them to greatness in later centuries, as Christianity would go on to play an important role in the formation of the future Kingdom of Spain and its empire. But the peace and prosperity that blessed the Visigoth Kingdom would not last forever. A new and ominous threat had gathered force on its southern horizon, and it had one goal: conquest.4

The ominous new threat that came surging out of northern Africa in the eighth century was a brand new religion. The Prophet Muhammad preached that his new religion, Islam, was the greatest of the monotheistic faiths. In the year 711, warriors of the new religion surged into the Iberian Peninsula. The kingdom of the Visigoths, weakened by internal division, was in no condition to face their fierce foes. One by one the cities of Iberia fell under the sway of the Muslim forces. The Christian kings of Iberia were pushed back to the Pyrenees. In a short time, the Muslims dominated the peninsula.5 However, the Muslims were not just conquers. They brought with them a vibrant and lively culture. As well as bringing their new faith, they introduced leather making, and Muslim architecture. In fact, at the Muslim capital of Cordoba, under the direction of Caliph Abd-ar- Rahman I, the great mosque of Cordoba was built, and it became the third most important mosque in the world after those in Mecca and Jerusalem.6 Also, in Muslim Iberia trade, philosophy, and theology prospered to an extraordinary extent. For the Christian kings, however, none of this was important. To them, the Muslim faith was a menace that had to be pushed back, and the Christians were going to try and do just that.

In the wake of the Muslim invasion, the Christian kings of Iberia were almost swept off the peninsula. However, they intended to win back every inch of the land that they had lost. Thus began a long period in Iberian history known as the Reconquista, which would last for over 700 hundred years. Little by little, the Christian kingdoms of the north took back the land they had lost. They took back Toledo in 1085, and then Seville in 1248. Ever so slowly, the Christian kingdoms pushed back their foes. By the time of Isabella’s birth, there were only five kingdoms left in Iberia: Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, and the final Muslim outpost of Granada. However, before they could conquer Granada, the Christian kingdoms needed to achieve unity among themselves. And that is where Isabella would play a vital role.7

Map of the Iberian Peninsula in the 14th century | Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons

For Isabella, her early teen years were some of the most dangerous of her life. At the young age of thirteen, while in the middle of marriage negotiations, the nobles of Castile rebelled against her half-brother King Enrique. Enrique was such an ineffective ruler that the nobles instead chose Isabella’s brother, Alfonso, to be king. Thus, Castile was plunged into civil war, and all talk of marriage was suspended. Isabella, with all her heart and soul, threw herself behind her younger brother. It seemed, for a time, that Alfonso and Isabella would emerge victorious, but then Alfonso suddenly died. Isabella was left to face the future alone. Having betrayed her brother, Isabella made an astounding decision. She wrote a letter to the kingdom that pronounced Enrique as the true king of Castile, but then stated that she would be next in line, after his death. Enrique, weary of civil war, eagerly accepted Isabella’s offer. Thus, Isabella’s prudence won both parties a great victory. Enrique saved face, and Isabella secured her future as queen of Castile. Now with that frightening episode behind her, Isabella could refocus on finding a suitable husband.8

Now that everything had settled down in Castile, Isabella was free to continue her pursuit of a suitable husband. Her attention turned to Castile’s neighbor, Aragon. Since Isabella was now the heir to the throne of Castile, she decided that pursuing a marriage with Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Aragon, was the most desirable option. Ferdinand was a young, handsome, intelligent, and charming man. Together, the two young expectant monarchs represented the bright future of their kingdoms. Finally, after much delay, Ferdinand arrived at the Castillian city of Valladolid, where his soon to be wife was waiting for him.9 On October 19, 1469, the couple finally wed.10 The union of the two future monarchs would shape the destiny not just of their kingdoms, but also of the world. Now all Ferdinand and Isabella had to do was wait. When Isabella’s brother died, she would inherit the kingdom of Castile, and when Ferdinand’s father died, he would inherit the kingdom of Aragon. Thus, the two kingdoms would be effectively transformed into one.

Wedding Portrait of Isabella and Ferdinand | Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons

Finally, in 1474, the couple’s time arrived. Over the past five years, Isabella’s power and support in the kingdom had grown, and King Enrique’s health had also become more fragile. Finally on December 11, 1474 King Enrique died. Isabella moved quickly to consolidate her power. She quickly sent out a letter to the kingdom announcing the death of her brother and asserting her right to rule. In the city of Segovia, where Isabella was staying, she celebrated mass, and then she changed into a splendid outfit laced with gold and precious gems. Before a crowd of cheering people, she became queen. The city celebrated with a procession of Isabella’s allies who were eager to declare their allegiance to the new sovereign. It was truly a momentous occasion. But all was not well. Despite the convincing illusion of power, there were many of Isabella’s enemies who sought her throne.11 King Alfonso V of Portugal, with Enrique’s young daughter Juana by his side, declared himself King of Castile and invaded the country.12 Isabella sent Ferdinand to intercept the Portuguese army commanded by King Alfonso. At the battle of Toro, Ferdinand decisively defeated the Portuguese army. Finally, in 1479, after signing the treaty of Alcacoavs, Isabella and Ferdinand’s rule was cemented, and they were the only rulers of Castile. Also, Ferdinand’s father died in 1479, and Ferdinand ascended to the throne of Aragon.13 At last, Isabella and Ferdinand ruled a united and powerful kingdom—the Kingdom of Spain. Finally, Isabella could turn her attention to conquering the kingdom that, for so long, had eluded her ancestors. It was time to vanquish Granada and expel the Muslims from Spain.

In 1481, the final stage of the Reconquista commenced. The Muslims, believing that Spain was weak from its wars with Portugal, attacked the town of Zahara. The attack was a complete success and the Muslims believed that the Spanish government would not respond. However, they were wrong. The Spain of Isabella and Ferdinand was much more powerful than its predecessor, Castile, had been in the past. Flushed with the wealth and power of her new state, Isabella intended not only to strike back, but to finish the Reconquista once and for all. The Spanish army swept into Granada, and captured the town of Alhama. This center of commerce was not even twelve miles from the capital city of Granada. Victory was within Isabella’s grasp. At the same time, civil war broke out in Granada. Here, Isabella now  saw an opportunity. She offered the ruler of Granada, Boabil, a two-year truce, which he gratefully accepted. In the interim, Isabella planned to continue strengthening her forces for the final assault, while the civil war in Granada waged on, weakening the state’s ability to resist the Catholic conquerors. The plan worked well, and by the time the campaign resumed, Granada had torn itself apart. The Catholic forces moved swiftly from one fortress to the next, taking each after a hard fought battle. Finally, on January 2, 1492, the city of Granada surrendered. Isabella was victorious. All of Iberia was now in the hands of the Christians once more. After 700 years, Isabella had achieved the goal that had eluded her predecessors for so long. The final outpost of the Muslim faith in Iberia was gone forever.14 With that goal accomplished, Isabella could now pour her country’s resources into new and exciting adventures elsewhere. Indeed, the world had grown wider since the last time Iberia had been united, and there were many things to learn and to explore.

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Western Europe underwent colossal changes. The nations of Europe awoke from the slumber of the dark ages to an entirely different world. A world, rich with resources and luxury goods, lay just beyond their grasp in the East Indies. The first European nation to branch out was Portugal, which, due to its excellent location on the western shore of the Atlantic Ocean, took the first steps into a larger world. In the mid-fifteenth century, Portugal began raiding Muslim settlements on the coast of North Africa. The raiders who returned brought home gold artifacts and other fine goods. From then on Portugal would go on to establish colonies up and down the western coast of Africa, and much wealth flowed out of these colonies back to Portugal. The Portuguese took another large step when, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed around the southernmost tip of Africa. This monumental voyage opened India and the far east to European trade, and Portugal was the first nation to establish European colonies in India, the Persian Gulf, Macao, and Sri Lanka. Portugal’s overseas expansion brought much wealth to the small country. In a matter of mere decades Portugal transformed itself into one of the most powerful countries on Earth. If Spain, or any other country in Europe for that matter, wanted to keep up, they too would need colonies and trade routes that rivaled those of Portugal. But in order to surpass Portugal, the nations of Europe would need to find a new and faster route to the East Indies. That is where one man, a well known sailor from Genoa, would play a vital role in changing the history of the world forever, and give Spain a decisive edge over its neighbor.15

The year 1492 began with tremendous success for Isabella. The kingdom of Granada fell early in the year, and as a result, Spain became a major voice on the European continent. Isabella’s own prestige was impressive. She had transformed herself into one of the most formidable monarchs in Europe, and she was certainly the most powerful woman in the world. It seemed as if she had reached her zenith, but this was not true. For many years, a brilliant Italian navigator, Christopher Columbus, had been lobbying Isabella for money and supplies to conduct a voyage to the East Indies. Columbus believed that he could bypass Portuguese strongholds in the far east by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Yes, the feat was dangerous and highly romantic, but if it succeeded, Spain would have a new and quicker passage to the Far East. In the past, Isabella had been reluctant to commission voyages, but now that the war with Granada was over, she finally decided to give Columbus her approval. So, a half hour before sunrise on August 3, 1492, Columbus embarked from the port of Palos. In his charge he had three ships, the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria, as well as ninety men. The small squadron sailed on into the open and uncharted ocean for five weeks. The sailors grew restless, and the officers questioned Columbus’ capacity for leadership. They thought that he had led them into an endless sea, and they lost hope that they would ever see land again. However, they were wrong. Early in the morning on October 12, 1492, a sailor on board the Pinta shouted, “Land.”  When the men peered out from their ship, they saw laid out before them a tropical paradise situated on a small island, most likely one of the Bahamas. Columbus spent over two months exploring the Bahamas and finding new islands. He met local Native Americans, with whom he traded and lived. In December, he claimed the island of Haiti for Ferdinand and Isabella and named it San Salvador. Thus it was that one of the first possessions of the Spanish Empire was claimed. However, Columbus could not stay forever, and in January of 1493, he departed for Spain. When Columbus returned, Isabella happily received him in the city of Barcelona. She was overjoyed by the results of his voyage, and she eagerly agreed to finance more journeys. She also lavished him with new titles in recognition of his achievements on behalf of Spain. The year 1492 was a monumental year, but the voyages of Christopher Columbus were the crowning achievement of the age. It was the beginning of a new era in world history, and Isabella was responsible for it. If it had not been for her willingness to send men into the unknown, the world might be a radically different place. Thus, when 1492 drew to a close and the new year dawned, Isabella reached the height of her power, as Spain was now poised to found a new empire across the seas that would bring it immeasurable riches.16

The return of Christopher Columbus by Eugene Delacroix 1839 | Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons

The reign of Queen Isabella of Spain was one of the most consequential in world history. Her incredible sense of duty, her commitment to faith, and her love for her country drove her to do great things. She is the founder of not only the Kingdom of Spain, but also, the Spanish Overseas Empire. Spain would go on to acquire territory in both Central and South America, Italy, and the Netherlands. Her actions shaped the history of two continents, and her legacy still endures today. Wherever, in these distant lands, the Spanish language is spoken, wherever the Catholic faith is practiced, we have Isabella to thank.

Kirstin Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday , 2014), 3. ↵

John Fraser Ramsey, Spain: The Rise of the First World Power (Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 104-105. ↵

Kirstin Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 40-41. ↵

Kirsten Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 11-12. ↵

Kirstin Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 12-15. ↵

John Fraser Ramsey, Spain: The Rise of the First World Power (Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 36. ↵

John Fraser Ramsey, Spain: The Rise of the First World Power (Albama: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 50, 78. ↵

Kirstin Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 53-63, 67-68. ↵

William Hickling Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (New York: The Heritage Press, 1967), 46, 49. ↵

Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2013, s.v. “Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella,” by Paul Stewart. ↵

Kirstin Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 129-132. ↵

William Hickling Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (New York: The Heritage Press, 1967), 58. ↵

 Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2013, s.v. “Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella,” by Paul Stewart. ↵

John Fraser Ramsey, Spain: The Rise of the First World Power (Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1973), 215-223. ↵

 The Gale Encyclopedia of U.S History: Government and Politics, 2008, s.v. “The Pre-Colonial Era: 1450-1620.” ↵

Kirstin Downey, Isabella: The Warrior Queen (New York: Doubleday, 2014), 235-253. ↵

Isabella of Castile April 22, 1451 – November 26, 1504

Isabella of Castile April 22, 1451 – November 26, 1504

Isabella of Castile
Isabella of Castile (Isabella of Castile
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Isabella of Castile
Isabella of Castile (April 22, 1451 – November 26, 1504) was queen of Castile and Aragon. Together with her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon, their reign was a turning point for the Iberian Peninsula. The marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand joined the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. The two shared power equally, established a code of law, strengthened the monarchy and facilitated the dismantling of power of the nobles within their kingdom. She and her husband regained the final Muslim-ruled territories, completing the re-conquest of Spain. She thus established the foundation for the political unification of Spain that occurred during the reign of their grandson, Carlos I of Spain.

A pious Catholic, Isabella focused on converting the citizens of her kingdom, in pursuit of what she believed were necessary measures to ensure doctrinal uniformity to the Church. She unleashed the Inquisition, and in 1492 she decreed that all Jews and Muslims must either convert or be expelled. This act of misplaced religious zeal destroyed what has been a society marked by remarkable religious tolerance and co-existence. This was particularly onerous on the Jews, who were forced to emigrate to lands throughout Europe and North Africa; others converted outwardly but practiced their religion in secret; these "marranos" were hunted down by the Inquisition.

Isabella is perhaps best known for funding Christopher Columbus' explorations, which resulted in Spain's overseas empire and Spanish domination of Europe for the next century. It also resulted in the Christianization of the peoples of Latin America and the use of Spanish as the lingua franca by millions.

Although she showed compassion for the Native Americans encountered by Columbus, refusing to receive them as slaves and asking that they be returned to their homes and educated in the Catholic faith, the conquistadors who followed would enslave millions of Native Americans and destroy their ancient cultures.

On the positive side, as a result of the Spanish empire, many people today share a similar Hispanic culture and can communicate easily and have an awareness of a common legacy and of being citizens of an increasingly inter-dependent globe.

Name
In Germanic countries, she is usually known by the Italian form of her name, 'Isabella.' The Castilian version of her name was Ysabel or Isabel, which traces etymologically to Hebrew Elisth or 'Elizabeth.' Likewise, her husband is Fernando in Spain, but Ferdinand elsewhere. The official inscription on their tomb renders their names in Latin as "Helizabeth" and "Fernandus."

Pope Alexander VI named Ferdinand and Isabella "The Catholic Monarchs." She is also known as Isabel la Católica (Isabel the Catholic), and Queen Isabella.

Genealogy
Isabella was great-great-granddaughter of:

Henry II of Castile and his wife Joan of Villena,
Henry's half-brother Peter I of Castile and his wife, Maria de Padilla.
Peter IV of Aragon and his wife Leonor of Portugal, daughter of King Afonso IV of Portugal
Leonor's half-brother Peter I of Portugal and his mistress Teresa Lourenço.
Through John of Gaunt; King Edward III of England and his wife Philippa of Hainault.
Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster and his wife Isabel de Beaumont.
Nuno Alvares Pereira, Count de Barcelos and his wife Leonor Alvim, Countess of Barcelos.
She was great-granddaughter of:

John I of Castile and his wife Eleanor of Aragon, a sister of Kings John I of Aragon and Martin I of Aragon.
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and his second wife Constance of Castile (1354-1394), a daughter of Peter I of Castile.
King John I of Portugal and his wife Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt from his first wife Blanche of Lancaster.
Afonso, Duke de Braganza, a son of John I of Portugal by Inez Perez, and his wife Beatriz Pereira, countess of Barcelos.
Isabella's paternal grandparents were King Henry III of Castile and Catherine Plantagenet of the English House of Lancaster, a half sister of King Henry IV of England. Her maternal grandparents were Prince João of Portugal, Grand Master of Santiago, who was a brother of Henry the Navigator, and his wife Isabella de Bragança.

Her parents were King John II of Castile and his second wife Queen Isabella of Portugal.

Isabella was the final monarch of the Trastamara dynasty established by Henry II of Castile.

Early years

Isabella was born in Madrigal de las Altas Torres on April 22, 1451. Her brother Afonso was born three years later. Isabella was three years old when her father, John II of Castile, died in 1454. At that time, her much older half-brother Henry IV became king. Upon ascending to the throne, he sequestered his half-siblings to Segovia and his stepmother to Arévalo, placing them in virtual exile.

The first marriage of Henry IV, to Blanca of Navarre was not consummated and was annulled. He then married Joana of Portugal with the intention of producing offspring. His wife gave birth to Joan, princess of Castile.

When Isabella was about ten, she and her brother were summoned to the court, to be under more direct supervision and control by the king.

In the Representation of Burgos, the nobles challenged the King; demanding that Afonso, Isabella's brother, be named heir to the kingdom. Henry agreed, with the condition that Afonso marries his daughter, Joan. A few days later, he reversed his decision.

The nobles, now in control of Afonso and claiming him to be the true heir, clashed with Henry's forces at the Battle of Olmedo in 1467. The battle was a draw.

One year later, Afonso died at age fourteen. Isabella became the hope of the rebelling nobles. But she refused their advances, acknowledging Henry as king. He, in turn, recognized her as the legitimate heir, after she managed to convince him that he had been impotent and had not fathered Joan (by now, married off to the King of Portugal).

Henry tried to orchestrate marriage for Isabella with a number of people he had chosen. She evaded all these propositions. Instead, she chose Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Aragon. They were married October 19, 1469.

Accession
When Henry IV died on December 10, 1474, Isabella acted quickly. Three days after Henry's death, she was crowned Queen of Castile at Segovia.

While she and Ferdinand began to reorganize the court, Alfonso V of Portugal crossed the border and declared Joan the rightful heir. Ferdinand beat the invaders back at the Battle of Toro in 1476, and the challenge to the crown of Castile was rejected. In a series of separate marches, Ferdinand and Isabella went on to subjugate renegade and rebellious towns, fortresses, and points of power that had developed over time.

In 1479, Ferdinand's father died, establishing Ferdinand and Isabella as King and Queen of Aragon. In 1480, the couple assembled the Cortes of Toledo where, under their supervision, five royal councils and 34 civilian representatives produced a codex of laws and edicts as the legal groundwork for the future Spain. This established the centralization of power with the royals and set the basis for economic and judicial rehabilitation of the country. As part of this reform, and in their attempt to unify the country, Ferdinand and Isabella solicited Pope Sixtus IV to authorize the Inquisition. In 1483, Tomás de Torquemada became the first Inquisitor General in Seville.

The events of 1492
1492 was an important year for Isabella, seeing the conquest of Granada and hence the end of the 'Reconquista' (reconquest), her successful patronage of Christopher Columbus, and her expulsion of the Jews and Muslims.

Granada

The Capitulation of Granada by F. Padilla: Boabdil before Ferdinand and Isabella
By the time Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand turned their eyes toward the Kingdom of Granada with reconquest in mind, Granada had been held by the Muslim Moors since their invasion of Spain in the eighth century. Protected by natural barriers and fortified towns, Granada had withstood attempts at reconquista since shortly after the Moors' eighth-century invasion and occupation. However, in contrast to the determined leadership by Isabella and Ferdinand, Granada's divided leadership of the late fifteenth century was no match. It took ten years for Isabella and Ferdinand to conquer Granada, with final victory in 1492. Early on in the final push for reconquest, the Spaniards captured Boabdil, one of the rulers. He was set free after a ransom was paid, and allowed to return to Granada and resume his reign.

The Spanish monarchs had recruited soldiers from many European countries and improved their artillery with the latest cannons. In 1485, soldiers of the king and queen laid siege to Ronda, which surrendered after extensive bombardment. The following year, Loja, Granada was taken, and again Boabdil was captured and released. One year later, with the fall of Málaga, the western part of the Moorish kingdom had fallen into Spanish hands. The eastern province succumbed after the fall of Baza, Granada in 1489. The siege of Granada began in the spring of 1491. At the end of the year, Boabdil surrendered.

When an accidental fire destroyed the Spanish camp, the camp was rebuilt in stone, in the form of a cross, painted white, and named Santa Fe (“Holy Faith”).

On January 2, 1492, Isabel and Ferdinand entered Granada to receive the keys of the city. The principal mosque was reconsecrated as a church. The Treaty of Granada signed later that year assured religious rights to the Islamic believers—but this treaty was not honored long.

Columbus

Columbus before Isabella and Ferdinand
Christopher Columbus' plan to reach the Indies by sailing west was rejected three times by Queen Isabella before she agreed to support him. Isabella agreed to meet Columbus' conditions that included giving him the position of Admiral; governorship for him and his descendants of lands to be discovered; and ten percent of the profits from the trip. His expedition departed on August 3, 1492. He received a hero's welcome upon returning the following year and presented his findings to the monarchs, bringing natives and gold. This voyage marked Spain's entrance into a Golden Age of exploration and colonization.

In 1494, Isabella and Ferdinand divided the Earth outside of Europe with Portugal, by the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Rather than enslaving the Native Americans that Columbus had offered, Isabella insisted that they be returned to their home. She continued to defend the natives against the abuse of the colonists. In 1503, she established the Secretary of Indian Affairs, which later became the Supreme Council of the Indies.

Expulsion of the Jews and Muslims

When Isabella and Ferdinand instituted the Roman Catholic Inquisition in Spain, with the Dominican friar, the converso Tomás de Torquemada, as the first Inquisitor General, the Catholic Monarchs set a policy of "religious cleansing." On March 31, 1492, they issued the Alhambra decree for the expulsion of the Jews (See main article on Inquisition) and Muslims in Spain. Approximately 200,000 people left Spain. Others converted, many of whom were persecuted further by the Inquisition investigating Judaizing conversos (Marranos). The Muslims of the newly conquered Granada were initially granted religious freedom by treaty, but pressure to convert increased, and after some revolts, a policy of forced expulsion or conversion was instituted after 1500.

Children
Isabella had five children with Ferdinand:

Isabella of Asturias (October 1, 1470 - August 23, 1498)—first married Afonso of Portugal, and, after his death, Manuel I of Portugal; died in childbirth; her child died two years later.
John, Prince of Asturias (June 28, 1478 - October 4, 1497)—married Margaret of Austria (1480-1530), died after six months of marriage without offspring
Juana of Castile, "La Loca" (November 6, 1479 - April 13, 1555)—married Philip the Handsome
Maria of Aragon (June 29, 1482 - March 7, 1517)—married Manuel I of Portugalafter Isabella's death.
Catherine of Aragon (December 15, 1485 - January 7, 1536)—first married Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales, and, after his death, his brother Henry VIII of England, King of England
Later years

Queen Isabella's Will, by E. Rosales. On the left: Juana and Ferdinand, on the right: Cardinal Cisneros (black cap)
Pope Alexander VI bestowed the title of "Reina Catolica" upon Isabella, a very religious person, and her husband. In spite of the honor, Isabella did not approve of this pope's secularism.

Along with the physical unification of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand embarked on a process of spiritual unification of the citizens of the country by trying to bring them under one faith (Roman Catholicism). As part of this process, the Inquisition became institutionalized. Isabella's confessor, Francisco Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros was named Archbishop of Toledo, Spain. He was instrumental in a program of rehabilitation of the religious institutions of Spain, laying the groundwork for the later Counter-Reformation. As Chancellor, he exerted more and more power.

Isabella and her husband, who had created an empire, were in latter years consumed with administration and politics. They were worried about succession and worked to link the Spanish crown to the other rulers they favored in Europe through the marriage of their children. Specifically, they attempted to outflank France and to unite the Iberian Peninsula. In 1497 Juan, the Crown Prince, married Margaret of Austria, establishing the connection to the Habsburgs. The eldest daughter, Isabelle, married Manuel I of Portugal, and Juana was married to another Habsburg prince, Philip.

However, Isabella's plans for her children did not work out. Juan died shortly after his marriage. Isabella died in childbirth and her son Miguel died at the age of two. Queen Isabella's titles passed to her daughter Juana of Castile (la Loca) whose marriage to Philip the Handsome was troubled. Isabella died in 1504 in Medina del Campo, before Philip and Ferdinand became enemies.

Isabella is entombed in Granada in the Capilla Real, which was built by her grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (Carlos I of Spain), alongside her husband Ferdinand, her daughter Juana and Juana's husband Philip; and Isabella's 2-year old grandson, Miguel (the son of Isabella's daughter, also named Isabella, and King Manuel of Portugal). The museum next to the Capilla Real houses her crown and scepter.

Legacy
Isabella and Ferdinand began their marriage with a prenuptial agreement in place that established equality within the terms of their partnership. On this foundation, they built a highly effective coregency. During their reign, they supported each other in accordance with their joint motto: Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando ("They amount to the same, Isabella and Ferdinand").

Their achievements are remarkable. Spain was united. Under the crown, power was centralized. The reconquista was successfully concluded. A legal framework was created. The Catholic Church was reformed. Even without the benefit of the American expansion, Spain would have been a major European power. Columbus' discovery set the country on the course for the first modern world power.

However, the dark side of their reign had long-term consequences. The Inquisition and its intolerant treatment of religious minorities was harsh and cruel. A negative historic model was set that continued to impact the course of history into modern times. The wealth of the Spanish empire was gained by conquest was spent quickly, leading to a quick decline compared to the Roman Empire the preceded it or the British Empire that followed it.

In the twentieth century, the regime of Francisco Franco claimed the prestige of the Catholic Monarchs. As a result, Isabella was despised by those opposed to Franco and is often blamed as the principal instigator of the Spanish Inquisition by separatists. This sort of animosity is based on a belief in the inherent evil of the Inquisition.

Some Catholic Spaniards have attempted to have Isabella declared as blessed, with the aim of later having her canonized as a Saint. Their justification is that Isabella was a protector of the Spanish poor and of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the rapacity of the Spanish nobility. In addition, miracles have reportedly been attributed to her. This movement has met with opposition from Jewish organizations, Liberation theologians and Jean-Marie, Cardinal Lustiger, due to the fact that Isabella had many Moors killed after her entrance to Córdoba.

In 1974, Pope Paul VI opened her cause for beatification. This places her on the path towards possible sainthood. In the Catholic Church, she is thus titled Servant of God.

Isabella was the first named woman to appear on a United States coin, an 1893 United States commemorative quarter, celebrating the 400th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage. In the same year she was the first woman and only foreign ruler to be featured on a U.S. postal stamp, also in celebration of Columbus. She appears in the Spanish court scene replicated on the 15-cent Columbian (above) and in full portrait, side by side with Columbus, on the rare $4 Columbian, the only stamp of that denomination ever issued.