GREEKS BURN`T TROY JUNE 11,1186 B.C-

GREEKS BURN`T  TROY 

JUNE 11,1186 B.C-

திராயன் போர் அல்லது திரோயன் போர் (Trojan War) ஓமர் எழுதிய இரு பெரும் கிரேக்க காப்பியங்களான இலியட்டு மற்றும் ஓடிசிக்கு பின்புலம் ஆகின்றது. இலியட்டு பத்து ஆண்டுகள் நிகழந்த திராயன் போரின் இறுதி ஆண்டின் ஐம்பது நாட்களை விபரிக்கின்றது. ஓடிசி, திராயன் போரில் பங்குகொண்ட ஒரு கிரேக்க தீவின் அரசனான ஓடீசியசு நாடு திரும்புகையில், வழிதவறி மீண்ட ஒரு பயணக் கதையை விபரிக்கின்றது.

கிரேக்க காப்பியங்கள், கடவுள்கள், மனிதர்கள், பல வித உயிரினங்கள், இடங்கள், உலகங்கள், சக்திகள், இயற்கை வினோதங்கள், நிகழ்வுகள் எனப் பல அம்சங்கள் அடங்கிய பரந்த கதைப் புலங்களைக் கொண்டவை. எனினும் திராயன் போரை கெலன் (ஃகெலன்) என்ற ஒரு பெண்ணுக்கான ஒரு போராக, ஒரு மனித தளத்தில் நோக்கலாம்

கெலன் (Helen, மாற்றுப் பெயர்ப்பு:ஹெலன்) கிரேக்கத் தொன்மவியலில் ஓர் முதன்மையான பெண்ணாவார். உலகிலேயே மிகவும் அழகானவராக கருதப்படுபவர். திராயன் போரிலும் ஓமரின் இலியட்டிலும் முதன்மையான இடம் பெற்றுள்ளார். இவருக்காகத்தான் பலநாட்டு மன்னர்களும் திராயன் போரில் சண்டையிட்டு திராயும் அழிபட்டது.

கெலன் சியுசு கடவுளுக்கும் எசுபார்த்தாவின் மன்னன் மனைவி லெடாவிற்கும் பிறந்தவள். கேசுடர் மற்றும் போலிடியூக்சு என்ற சகோதரர்களையும் கிளைடைம்னெசுட்டிரா என்ற சகோதரியையும் உடையவள். கெலன், மெனெலசு என்ற இளவரசனை சுயம்வரத்தில் தெரிந்து திருமணம் செய்து எசுபார்த்தாவின் அரசியாக விளங்கினாள். இவர்கள் இருவருக்கும் எர்மியோன் என்ற பெண் மகவு பிறந்தது. பின்னதாக பாரிசு என்ற திராய் நாட்டு இளவரசன் எசுப்பார்த்தாவிற்கு வந்தான். அப்ரோடிட் என்ற காதல் தேவதையே அழகானவளாக ஒரு வழக்கில் தீர்ப்புச் சொன்னதனால் பாரிசு, கெலனை ஒரு வரமாகப் பெற்றிருந்தான். இதனால் பாரிசு கெலனைக் கவர்ந்து திராய்க்குக் கொண்டு சென்றான். இதுவே திராயன் போர் மூள காரணமாக அமைந்தது.

கெலனின் சுயம்வரம்

Helen of Troy by Evelyn De Morgan
கிரேக்க நாட்டின் ஒரு நகரம் எசுப்பார்த்தா ஆகும். எசுப்பார்தாவை இரின்டர்யசு என்ற அரசன் ஆண்டுவந்தான். அவனுக்கு கெலன் என்ற ஒரு அழகிய மகள் இருந்தாள். கெலனை திருமணம் செய்ய கிரேக்க நாட்டின் பல இளவரசர்கள் விரும்பினர். ஆயினும் இரின்டர்யசு அவளை எந்த ஒர் இளவரசனுக்கும் மணம் முடிக்கப் பயந்தான், ஏனெனில் பிற இளவரசர்கள் கோபம் கொண்டு அவனது நகரை அழித்துவிடுவார்கள் என்பதால். இவர்களில் ஓடீசியசு என்னும் இளவரசன் இந்தச் சிக்கலைத் தீர்க்க ஒரு யோசனையை இரின்டர்யசுக்கு சொன்னான். கெலனை மணக்க விரும்புகின்றவர்களிடம் இருந்து ஒரு சத்தியம் பெற்றுக் கொள்ளும்படி ஆலோசனை கூறினான். யார் யார் எல்லாம் கெலனை மணக்க விரும்புகின்றார்களோ அவர்கள் எல்லோரும் ஒரு சுயம்வரத்தில் அவள் தேர்ந்தெடுக்கப் போகும் இளவரசனுடனான திருமணத்தை மதித்து நடக்கவேண்டும் என்பதுவே அது. சில பிணக்குகளுக்கு பின் அதற்கு அனைத்து இளவரசர்களும் இணங்கினர். கெலன், மெனெலசு என்ற இளவரசனை தெரிந்து திருமணம் செய்தாள். மெனெலசு எசுப்பார்த்தாவின் அரசுரிமையை பெற்றான். ஒடீசியசின் உதவிக்குக் கைமாறாகத் தனது உறவினளான பெனலிப்பி என்ற பெண்ணை மணம் செய்ய இரின்டயர்சு ஒடீசியசுக்கு உதவினான். ஒடீசியசு தன் தீவு நாடான இத்தாக்காவிற்கு திரும்பி பெனலிப்பியுடன் வாழத் தொடங்கினான்.

பாரிசின் தீர்ப்பு

The Judgement of Paris, பீட்டர் பவுல் ரூபென்ஸ், ca 1636 (National Gallery, London)
இச்சமயம் பாரிசு என்ற திராய் நாட்டு இளவரசன் எசுப்பார்த்தாவிற்கு வந்தான். அஃபறோடைரி என்ற காதல் தேவதைக்குச் சார்பாக ஒரு தீர்ப்புச் சொன்னதனால் பாரிசு, கெலனை ஒரு வரமாகப் பெற்றிருந்தான். இதனால் பாரிசு கெலனைக் கவர்ந்து திராய்க்குக் கொண்டு சென்றான்.

"ஆயிரம் கப்பல்களை ஏவிய ஒர் அழகு"
கெலனின் தெரிவையும் திருமணத்தையும் பாதுகாக்கச் சத்தியம் செய்திருந்த கிரேக்க இளவரசர்கள் அனைவரும் அவளை மீட்பதற்காய் திராய் சென்றனர். இதனையே "ஆயிரம் கப்பல்களை ஏவிய ஒர் அழகு" என்று கிறித்தோபர் மார்லொவ் பின்னர் விபரித்தான். கிரேக்கத்திற்கும் திராய்க்கும் அதன் நேச நாடுகளுக்கும் இடம்பெற்ற போரே திராயன் போராகும். இப்போரில் கிரேக்கப் படைகள் வென்று, திராய் அழிந்து போனது.


வரலாற்றுக் கூற்றுக்கள்
இப்போர் அல்லது இப்போரை ஒத்த வரலாற்று போர் உண்மையில் இடம்பெற்றதா, அல்லது றோயன் போர் ஒரு கதை அம்சமா என்பது குறித்து எந்த வித தெளிவான முடிவும் இதுவரை எட்டப்படவில்லை. ஆனால், இப்போரின் விபரணமும், இப்போரைப் பின்புலமாக வைத்து இயற்றப்பட்ட பல கிரேக்க காப்பியங்கள், தொன்மவியல் கதைகளும் இப்போரை மேற்கத்தைய இலக்கியத்திலும், பண்பாட்டிலும், வரலாற்றிலும் ஒரு முக்கிய நிகழ்வாக ஆக்கியிருக்கின்றன.

வரலாற்றுக் கதை
போரின் தொடக்கம்
சியுசின் திட்டம்
சியுசு என்பவர் கடவுள்களுக்கு எல்லாம் கடவுளாக விளங்கியவர். இவர் இவரது மனைவி எராவிற்கு உண்மையானவராக இருக்கவில்லை. பிற பெண்களுடன் தொடர்பு கொண்டிருந்து, பல பிள்ளைகளைப் பெற்றார். இதனால் பூமியில் மக்கள் தொகை அதிகரித்தது. ஆகவே இந்த போரின் மூலம் பலரை அழிக்க திட்டமிட்டார்.




The Trojan War is probably one of the most important events that have been narrated in Greek mythology. It was a war that broke out between the Achaeans (the Greeks) and the city of Troy. The best known narration of this event is the epic poem Iliad, written by Homer.

Zeus believed that the number of humans populating the Earth was too high and decided it was time to decrease it. Moreover, as he had various affairs with mortal women and fathered demigod children, he thought it would be good to get rid of them. He formed a plan after he learned of two prophecies; one of them said that he would be dethroned by one of his sons, just like he had done with his own father, Cronus; the other prophecy mentioned that the sea nymph Thetis, for whom Zeus had fallen, would give birth to a son that would surpass his father in glory. So, Zeus decided to marry Thetis to King Peleus.

The god of gods organised a grand feast in celebration of Peleus' and Thetis' marriage, in which all of the gods and important figures were invited, except the goddess of strife, Eris. The goddess was stopped at the door by Hermes, infuriating her. Before she left, she threw her gift amidst the guests; the Apple of Discord, a golden apple on which the words "to the fairest" had been inscribed. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite started quarreling over who should be the one to take the apple, and demanded that Zeus decide on this matter. Zeus knew that if he made a choice, he would cause the anger of the other two that wouldn't be picked, and decided to abstain; instead, he appointed Paris, the young prince of Troy, as the judge. Paris could not make a decision, even after seeing the three goddesses naked, so they started bribing him; Hera said that he would get political power and be the ruler of the continent of Asia; Athena would give him wisdom and great skills in battle; and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris gave the apple to Aphrodite, and returned to Troy.


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Trojan War

Trojan War
The Trojan War is probably one of the most important events that have been narrated in Greek mythology. It was a war that broke out between the Achaeans (the Greeks) and the city of Troy. The best known narration of this event is the epic poem Iliad, written by Homer.

Zeus believed that the number of humans populating the Earth was too high and decided it was time to decrease it. Moreover, as he had various affairs with mortal women and fathered demigod children, he thought it would be good to get rid of them. He formed a plan after he learned of two prophecies; one of them said that he would be dethroned by one of his sons, just like he had done with his own father, Cronus; the other prophecy mentioned that the sea nymph Thetis, for whom Zeus had fallen, would give birth to a son that would surpass his father in glory. So, Zeus decided to marry Thetis to King Peleus.

The god of gods organised a grand feast in celebration of Peleus' and Thetis' marriage, in which all of the gods and important figures were invited, except the goddess of strife, Eris. The goddess was stopped at the door by Hermes, infuriating her. Before she left, she threw her gift amidst the guests; the Apple of Discord, a golden apple on which the words "to the fairest" had been inscribed. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite started quarreling over who should be the one to take the apple, and demanded that Zeus decide on this matter. Zeus knew that if he made a choice, he would cause the anger of the other two that wouldn't be picked, and decided to abstain; instead, he appointed Paris, the young prince of Troy, as the judge. Paris could not make a decision, even after seeing the three goddesses naked, so they started bribing him; Hera said that he would get political power and be the ruler of the continent of Asia; Athena would give him wisdom and great skills in battle; and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris gave the apple to Aphrodite, and returned to Troy.



Peleus and Thetis had a son, Achilles, for whom two prophecies had been made; one was that he would either lead an uneventful but long life, or a glorious one but he would die young at a battlefield; the other prophecy was that without his help, the city of Troy would never fall. Afraid for her son's life, Thetis decided to grant immortality to him. When he was still an infant, she took him to the River Styx, one of the rivers that ran through the Underworld, and dipped him in the waters, thus making him invulnerable. However, Thetis did not realise that the heel of the boy, from which she was holding him, did not touch the waters and remained mortal; this would later be the doom of Achilles, and is the origin of the modern day phrase "Achilles' heel", signifying a vulnerable point. After the ritual, she dressed him as a girl and hid him at the court of King Lycomedes of Skyros.

Meanwhile, the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen, was the daughter of King Tyndareus of Sparta, and many noble suitors had arrived to claim her hand in marriage. Tyndareus did not want to make a choice for fear of causing political tensions, and stalled the decision. One of the suitors, Odysseus, offered to help solve the situation, asking in return for the hand of Penelope; Tyndareus agreed, and Odysseus asked that all suitors swear an oath that they would protect the couple no matter who the groom would be. After the oath was taken, Tyndareus picked Menelaus as his daughter's husband, effectively making him the successor of the Spartan throne through Helen. However, Menelaus caused Aphrodite's wrath, after failing to sacrifice one hundred oxen for her as he had promised; this is why Aphrodite decided to help Paris win Helen's heart. The goddess made a plan and disguised Paris as a diplomatic emissary. He then went to Sparta, where Helen welcomed him, while her husband was away in Crete to bury his uncle. At that point, the god of love, Eros, shot an arrow to her, thus causing her to fall in love with the Trojan prince. The two lovers eloped and left for Troy.

Menelaus returned home and realised what had happened. Along with Odysseus, they went to Troy to get Helen back, but all diplomatic attempts failed. So, Menelaus invoked the Oath of Tyndareus, and, helped by his brother Agamemnon, called all Achaean leaders who had previously been the suitors of Helen to fulfill their oath. They also needed the help of Achilles, as they knew of the prophecy that Troy would only fall with his help. Odysseus, Telamonian Ajax and Phoenix went to Skyros where they knew Achilles was hidden disguised as a woman. There, they either blew a warhorn, on the sound of which Achilles was the only woman that took a spear in hand; or they appeared as merchants selling jewels and weapons, and Achilles was the only woman interested in the latter.

Having Achilles with them, all leaders gathered at the port of Aulis. A sacrifice was made to Apollo, and the god sent an omen; the Achaeans saw a snake appear from the altar that slithered to a bird's nest, where it ate the mother and her nine babies before it was turned to stone. The seer Calchas said that this meant Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war. The Achaeans set sail for Troy, although no one knew the way. By mistake, they arrived in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus; after a battle, during which Achilles wounded the king, the Achaean ships sailed but a storm scattered them. Telephus' wound would not heal, and an oracle told him it would be healed by the person who inflicted it. When Telephus confronted Achilles, he said he did not have any medical knowledge; Odysseus then proposed that the spear that caused the wound might help, so pieces of metal were used and the wound was healed. Telephus then told them how they would reach Troy.

Due to the storm that scattered the fleet, the Achaean leaders eventually gathered in Aulis again eight years later. However, they were unable to set sail because there was no wind. Calchas realised that this was a punishment from the goddess Artemis, who was furious at Agamemnon for killing a sacred deer. Artemis demanded that Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia be sacrificed. Although Agamemnon initially refused, he reluctantly agreed in the end, and tricked his wife Clytemnestra and Iphigenia to go to Aulis, saying that Iphigenia was to marry Achilles. When they arrived to Aulis and understood what was going on, Clytemnestra cursed Agamemnon and was the reason she murdered him after the war was over. Iphigenia gracefully accepted her fate and placed herself on the altar; however, just as Calchas was about to sacrifice her, Artemis substituted the woman for a deer and took her to Tauris where she became the goddess' high priestess. Nevertheless, no one saw what happened on the altar except Calchas, who was bound not to say anything.



The winds picked up again after the sacrifice and the Achaean fleet was finally able to set sail. They made a stop at the island of Tenedos, where Achilles killed the king, who was the son of the god Apollo. Thetis had warned her son not to kill the king, lest he be killed by the god himself. This was also a foretelling of the hero's fate. While on the island, the Greeks sent a diplomatic mission to Troy asking for Helen, but it was refused into the city. So the fleet sailed on its final leg of the journey.

When the fleet arrived, they were all reluctant to disembark, as a prophecy said that the first Greek to step on Trojan soil would be the first to die in the war. Finally, Odysseus decided to disembark first; however, he threw his shield on the ground and stepped on it, while Protesilaus who followed him landed on the ground. Thus it was Protesilaus who died first, during a single combat against the Trojan prince Hector.

The siege of Troy lasted nine years, but not being complete, Troy was still able to maintain trade links with other Asian cities, as well as get reinforcements. At the end of the ninth year, the Achaean army mutinied and demanded that they return home, but Achilles eventually convinced them to stay longer.

On the tenth year, the priest of Apollo, Chryses, went to Agamemnon and asked for his daughter Chryseis' return, who had been taken as a concubine. Agamemnon refused, and Chryses prayed to Apollo, who inflicted the Greek army with plague. Agamemnon returned Chryseis to her father, but instead took Achilles' concubine for his own. Achilles, infuriated, said he would no longer fight and stayed in his tent. Although the Achaeans initially won a few battles, Achilles' refusal to fight led to a series of defeats, to the point that the Trojans almost set fire to the Greek ships. Then, Patroclus, a close friend of Achilles, took command of the Myrmidon army, but was slain in battle by Hector. Achilles, maddened with grief, swore vengeance; Agamemnon returned the concubine back to him and the two leaders reconciled. The Greek army was again victorious, and Achilles eventually managed to kill Hector; he refused to give Hector's body to the Trojans for burial, and instead, he desecrated it by dragging it with his chariot in front of the city walls. He eventually agreed to return it, after King Priam of Troy pleaded for his son's proper burial.

Achilles later died by a poisonous arrow that Paris shot against him. The arrow was guided by the god Apollo and hit Achilles on his heel, which was the only vulnerable spot of the hero's body. Achilles was burned on a funeral pyre and his bones were mixed with those of his close friend Patroclus. Paris was killed later by Philoctetes, using Heracles' bow.

Odysseus devised a plan to end the war for good. He asked that a wooden horse be built that was hollow inside. Soldiers hid in the interior of the horse, which was brought in front of the city gates, saying that it was a gift from the Greeks, showing the withdrawal of the Greek army and the end of the war. The Trojans happily accepted and brought the horse inside the city. They then started feasting and celebrating the victory. During the night, the Greek soldiers went out of the horse and started slaying the drunk Trojans. In the battle that followed, a huge number of soldiers died but eventually, Troy fell. The Greeks burned it and raided it, at the same time committing offences against many gods, by destroying temples and sacred grounds. Although victorious, most heroes and Greek soldiers either never returned home or returned after many adventures, as the gods were infuriated.

The Trojan War marked the end of the Heroic Age of Man, according to Hesiodus, and the transition of the world to the Iron Age. Zeus' attempt to depopulate the earth and kill a number of demigods and heroes proved successful.




The Trojan War, fought between Greeks and the defenders of the city of Troy in Anatolia sometime in the late Bronze Age, has grabbed the imagination for millennia. A conflict between Mycenaeans and Hittites may well have occurred, but its representation in epic literature such as Homer’s Iliad is almost certainly more myth than reality. Nevertheless, it has defined and shaped the way ancient Greek culture has been viewed right up to the 21st century CE. The story of gods and heroic warriors is perhaps one of the richest single surviving sources from antiquity and offers insights into the warfare, religion, customs, and attitudes of the ancient Greeks.

PARIS & HELEN 
The main source for our knowledge of the Trojan War is Homer’s Iliad (written sometime in the 8th century BCE) where he recounts 52 days during the final year of the ten-year conflict. The Greeks imagined the war to have occurred some time in the 13th century BCE. However, the war was also the subject of a long oral tradition prior to Homer’s work, and this, combined with other sources such as the fragmentary Epic Cycle poems, give us a more complete picture of what exactly the Greeks thought of as the Trojan War.

The Trojan War, in Greek tradition, started as a way for Zeus to reduce the ever-increasing population of humanity and, more practically, as an expedition to reclaim Helen, wife of Menelaos, King of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon. Helen was abducted by the Trojan prince Paris (also known as Alexandros) and taken as his prize for choosing Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess in a competition with Athena and Hera at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Menelaos and the Greeks wanted her back and to avenge Trojan impudence.


THE GREEK ARMY
The coalition of Greek forces (or Archaians as Homer often calls them) was led by King Agamemnon of Mycenae. Amongst the cities or regions represented were Boiotia, Phocia, Euboea, Athens, Argos, Corinth, Arcadia, Sparta, Kephalonia, Crete, Rhodes, Magnesia, and the Cyclades. Just how many men these totalled is unclear. Homer states an army of ‘tens of thousands’ or rather more poetically ‘as many [men] as the leaves and flowers that come in springtime’.

THE GODS HAD THEIR FAVOURITES AMONGST THE MEN FIGHTING DOWN ON THE PLAINS OF TROY & THEY OFTEN PROTECTED THEM BY DEFLECTING SPEARS.
Amongst the Greek warriors were some extra special heroes, leaders who were the greatest fighters and displayed the greatest courage on the battlefield. Also, they often had a divine mother or father whilst the other parent was a mortal, thereby creating a genealogical link between the gods and ordinary men. Amongst the most important were Achilles, Odysseus, Ajax, Diomedes, Patroklos, Antilokus, Menestheus, and Idomenus. 

The Greeks were aided by several of the Olympian gods of Greek religion. Athena, Poseidon, Hera, Hephaistos, Hermes, and Thetis all gave direct or indirect help to the Greeks in Homer’s account of the war. The gods had their favourites amongst the men fighting down on the plains of Troy and they often protected them by deflecting spears and even spiriting them away in the heat of battle to put them down somewhere safe, far from danger. 

THE TROJAN ARMY
The Trojan army defending the great city of Troy, led by their king Priam, had assistance from a long list of allies. These included the Carians, Halizones, Kaukones, Kikones, Lycians, Maionians, Mysians, Paionians, Paphlagonians, Pelasgians, Phrygians, and Thracians.

Achilles & Penthesileia

Achilles & Penthesileia

The Trojans, too, had their semi-divine heroes and these included Hektor (son of Priam), Aeneas, Sarpedon, Glaukos, Phorkys, Poulydamas, and Rhesos. The Trojans also had help from the gods, receiving assistance during the battle from Apollo, Aphrodite, Ares, and Leto.

KEY BATTLES
Most of the Trojan War was in a fact a protracted siege, and the city was able to resist the invaders for so long principally because its fortifications were so magnificent. Indeed, in Greek mythology, the walls of Troy were said to have been built by Poseidon and Apollo who, after an act of impiety, were compelled by Zeus to serve the Trojan King Laomedon for one year. There were, though, battles outside the city where armies fought, sometimes with chariots, but mostly by men on foot using spears and swords and protected by a shield, helmet, and armour for the chest and legs. War waged back and forth across the plains of Troy over the years, but the really exciting battles seem to have been reserved for the final year of the siege and the following are a selection of the highlights.

PARIS V MENELAOS
Tiring of indecisive battles, Menelaos offered to fight Paris in single-combat and so settle the issue of the war. Agreeing to this, the two warriors drew lots to see who would have first throw with their spear. Paris won and threw first but his spear landed harmlessly in the shield of Menelaos. The Greek king then threw his weapon with tremendous force and the spear went through the shield of Paris and carried on through to pierce his armour. If Paris had not swayed at the last moment, he would surely have been killed outright. However, Menelaos was not finished and with his sword he struck a fearful blow on the Trojan prince’s helmet. The sword shattered, though, and fell in pieces into the dust. Menelaos then grabbed Paris’ helmet with his bare hands and proceeded to drag him from the field. Choking as his helmet strap wrapped around his neck, Paris was only saved through the intervention of Aphrodite who broke the helmet strap and, covering the prince in a thick mist, spirited her favourite back to the safety of his perfumed bedroom.  

Achilles and Ajax By Exekias

Achilles and Ajax By Exekias

HEKTOR V AJAX
The meeting of the two great heroes echoes that of Menelaos and Paris. Each throw their spears but to no effect. Hektor then threw a large rock at the Greek, only for him to fend it off with his shield. Ajax then returned the favour with an even bigger rock, smashing Hektor’s shield. They then drew their swords and closed for mortal combat but were each stopped by their comrades who called for an end to the fighting as night was approaching. Displaying the code of honour for which the good old days were famous, the two warriors even said goodbye on friendly terms by exchanging gifts, Hektor giving a silver-hilted sword and Ajax giving a splendid purple belt.

WITH THE SUPPORT OF APOLLO, AN INSPIRATIONAL HEKTOR, IN HIS FINEST HOUR, ONCE MORE BEAT THE GREEKS BACK TO THEIR SHIPS.
THE GREEK SHIPS ATTACKED
Following a tremendous day of fighting, Hektor led the Trojans in an attack on the very walls of the Greeks’ camp. Breaking through the gates, the Trojans sent the Greeks fleeing in panic back to their ships. However, as Zeus was momentarily distracted by the charms of Hera, Poseidon stepped in to encourage the Greeks who rallied and forced the Trojans to retreat. Then the tide of battle changed again and, with the support of Apollo, an inspirational Hektor, in his finest hour, once more beat the Greeks back to their ships where he sought to set them ablaze. 

PATROKLOS FALLS
Invincible Achilles was quite simply the greatest warrior in Greece, or anywhere else for that matter. Much to the Greek’s frustration, though, he sat out most of the war in a big sulk. Agamemnon had stolen his female war-booty Briseis and consequently the hero refused to fight. Agamemnon at first doesn’t seem to have been too bothered about losing his temperamental talisman but as the Trojans started to gain an upper hand in the war, it began to look like Achilles would be needed if the Archaians were to actually win the protracted conflict. Accordingly, an increasingly desperate Agamemnon sent an appeal to Achilles with promises of vast treasure if he would only re-join the conflict. These Achilles refused but with the Greek camp under attack, Patroklos appealed to his mentor and great friend Achilles to rejoin the conflict and, when he still refused, Patroklos asked for permission to wear Achilles’ armour and lead the fearful Myrmidons himself. Achilles, on seeing one of the Greek ships already ablaze, reluctantly gave his consent but warned Patroklos to only repel the Trojans from the camp and not pursue them to the walls of Troy.

Ambrosian Iliad
Ambrosian Iliad
Patroklos then led the Greek fight-back, the Trojans were swept back and he even managed to kill the great Trojan hero Sarpedon. Flushed with success, the young hero then ignored Achilles’ advice and rashly carried the fighting on towards Troy. However, at this point, great Apollo intervened on behalf of the Trojans and struck the helmet and armour from Patroklos, shattered his spear and knocked his shield from his arm. Thus exposed and defenceless, Patroklos was stabbed by Euphorbos and then Hektor stepped in to deal the fatal blow with a pitiless stab of his spear.

ACHILLES’ NEW ARMOUR
When Achilles discovered the death of his great friend Patroklos, he was overcome with grief and rage and he swore to take terrible revenge on the Trojans and Hektor in particular. After a suitable show of mourning, Achilles finally decided to enter the battlefield once more. It was a decision which would seal the fate of Troy.

RESPLENDENT IN HIS SHINING ARMOUR, ACHILLES, STILL MAD WITH RAGE, PREDICTABLY ROUTED THE TROJANS.
Before he could enter the fighting, though, Achilles needed new armour and this was provided by his divine mother Thetis who had Hephaistos, the master craftsman of Olympus, make him the most magnificent set of armour ever seen. Using bronze, tin, silver, and gold, the god made a massive shield which depicted a myriad of earthly scenes and all the constellations. So too, he made a dazzling, gold-crested helmet for the hero. Resplendent in his shining armour, Achilles, still mad with rage, predictably routed the Trojans who fled in panic behind the safety of their city walls. 

HEKTOR V ACHILLES
Hektor alone remained standing outside the walls but at the sight of the awesome Achilles on the rampage, even his nerve gave way and he made a run for safety. Achilles, however, gave chase and pursued the Trojan prince three times around the city walls. Finally catching him, Achilles killed his quarry with a vicious stab of his spear in Hektor’s throat. Achilles then stripped the body of its fine armour and, tying Hektor by the ankles to his chariot, Achilles dragged the body back to the Greek camp in full view of Priam standing atop the fortifications of the city. This was a shockingly dishonourable act and against all the rules of ancient warfare.

Achilles Fighting Hektor

Achilles Fighting Hektor

Having avenged the death of Patroklos, Achilles arranged funeral games in his fallen friend’s honour. Meanwhile, Priam entered the Greek camp in disguise and begged Achilles to return the body of his son that he might be given proper burial. Initially reluctant, the emotional pleas of the old man were finally heeded and Achilles consented to return the body. Here the Iliad ends but the war still had a few more twists of fate to turn.

THE TROJAN HORSE & VICTORY
The war involved several more exciting episodes including Achilles’ fight with and killing of the Ethiopian King Memnon and the Amazon Penthesilea who both came to the aid of the Trojans. Achilles was even said to have fallen in love with the beautiful Amazon just at the moment he killed her with his spear. Achilles himself met his destiny and was killed by an arrow to his only weak spot, his ankle, shot by Paris and guided by Apollo. Odysseus and Ajax squabbled over the hero’s magnificent armour and Ajax went mad with disappointment when he lost out on the prize. Slaughtering a herd of sheep he thought were Greeks, he fell on his sword in a messy and pointless suicide. Philokteles got revenge for his father, Achilles, by fatally shooting Paris with the legendary bow of Hercules. Finally, Odysseus even managed to get into the city in disguise and steal the sacred Palladion statue of Athena.

TROY WAS SACKED & THE POPULATION SLAUGHTERED OR ENSLAVED. 
The final and decisive action was, though, the idea of the wooden horse. Odysseus, inspired by Athena, thought up the ruse to get a body of men inside the walls of Troy. First, the Greeks all sailed off into the sunset leaving a mysterious offering to the Trojans of a gigantic wooden horse which in reality concealed a group of warriors within. Just to make sure the Trojans took the horse within the city, Sinon was chosen to stay behind and tell a cock and bull story about the Greeks having given up and left a nice present. The Trojans did take the horse inside the city walls but whilst they were enjoying a drunken celebration of their victory, the Greeks climbed out of the horse, opened the city walls for the returning Greek army, and the city was sacked and the population slaughtered or enslaved. Helen was taken back to Argos and of the Trojan heroes only Aeneas escaped to eventually set up a new home in Italy.

Victory had its price though. Due to their pitiless ravaging of the city and its people and even worse, outrageous sacrilegious acts such as the rape of Kassandra, the gods punished the Greeks by sending storms to wreck their ships and those who did eventually return were made to endure a protracted and difficult voyage home. Even then, some of the Greeks who did make it back to their homeland only did so to face further misfortune and disaster.

The Trojan Horse
The Trojan Horse

TROJAN WAR: ART & LITERATURE
Troy and the Trojan War became a staple myth of Classical Greek and Roman literature and were revisited many times by writers in works such as Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, Euripedes’ Trojan Women, and Virgil’s Aenid. Also in pottery decoration and in sculpture, artists were captivated by the Trojan War. Scenes of the judgement of Paris, Achilles fighting Hektor, Achilles playing dice with Ajax, and Ajax falling on his sword were just some of the myriad scenes from the story that would appear in art again and again over the centuries. Perhaps more importantly, the Trojan War came to represent the struggle of Greeks against foreign powers and it told tales of a time when men were better, more able, and more honourable.

TROY IN ARCHAEOLOGY
There has been much scholarly debate as to whether the mythical Troy actually existed and if so, whether the archaeological site discovered in Anatolia which revealed a city which had prospered over thousands of years of habitation was actually the same city; however, it is now almost universally accepted that the archaeological excavations have revealed the city of Homer’s Iliad.

Of the several cities built on top of each other, Troy VI (c. 1750-1300 BCE) is the most likely candidate for the besieged city of Homer’s Trojan War. Impressive fortification walls with several towers certainly fit the Homeric description of ‘strong-built Troy’. The lower town covers an impressive 270,000 m² protected by an encircling rock-cut ditch and suggests a grand city like the Troy of tradition.

Troy VI was partially destroyed but the exact cause is not known beyond some evidence of fire. Intriguingly, bronze arrowheads, spear tips, and slingshots have been found at the site and even some embedded in the fortification walls, suggesting some sort of conflict. The dates of these (c. 1250 BCE) and the site destruction correlate with Herodotus’ dates for the Trojan War. Conflicts over the centuries between the Mycenaean and Hittite civilizations are more than probable, colonial expansion and control of lucrative trade routes being prime motivators. However, such conflicts are unlikely to have been on the scale of Homer’s war, but collectively they may well have been the origin of the epic tale of the Trojan War which has fascinated for centuries.

The Trojan War is probably one of the most important events that have been narrated in Greek mythology. It was a war that broke out between the Achaeans (the Greeks) and the city of Troy. The best known narration of this event is the epic poem Iliad, written by Homer.

Zeus believed that the number of humans populating the Earth was too high and decided it was time to decrease it. Moreover, as he had various affairs with mortal women and fathered demigod children, he thought it would be good to get rid of them. He formed a plan after he learned of two prophecies; one of them said that he would be dethroned by one of his sons, just like he had done with his own father, Cronus; the other prophecy mentioned that the sea nymph Thetis, for whom Zeus had fallen, would give birth to a son that would surpass his father in glory. So, Zeus decided to marry Thetis to King Peleus.

The god of gods organised a grand feast in celebration of Peleus' and Thetis' marriage, in which all of the gods and important figures were invited, except the goddess of strife, Eris. The goddess was stopped at the door by Hermes, infuriating her. Before she left, she threw her gift amidst the guests; the Apple of Discord, a golden apple on which the words "to the fairest" had been inscribed. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite started quarreling over who should be the one to take the apple, and demanded that Zeus decide on this matter. Zeus knew that if he made a choice, he would cause the anger of the other two that wouldn't be picked, and decided to abstain; instead, he appointed Paris, the young prince of Troy, as the judge. Paris could not make a decision, even after seeing the three goddesses naked, so they started bribing him; Hera said that he would get political power and be the ruler of the continent of Asia; Athenawould give him wisdom and great skills in battle; and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris gave the apple to Aphrodite, and returned to Troy

Peleus and Thetis had a son, Achilles, for whom two prophecies had been made; one was that he would either lead an uneventful but long life, or a glorious one but he would die young at a battlefield; the other prophecy was that without his help, the city of Troy would never fall. Afraid for her son's life, Thetis decided to grant immortality to him. When he was still an infant, she took him to the River Styx, one of the rivers that ran through the Underworld, and dipped him in the waters, thus making him invulnerable. However, Thetis did not realise that the heel of the boy, from which she was holding him, did not touch the waters and remained mortal; this would later be the doom of Achilles, and is the origin of the modern day phrase "Achilles' heel", signifying a vulnerable point. After the ritual, she dressed him as a girl and hid him at the court of King Lycomedes of Skyros.

Meanwhile, the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen, was the daughter of King Tyndareus of Sparta, and many noble suitors had arrived to claim her hand in marriage. Tyndareus did not want to make a choice for fear of causing political tensions, and stalled the decision. One of the suitors, Odysseus, offered to help solve the situation, asking in return for the hand of Penelope; Tyndareus agreed, and Odysseus asked that all suitors swear an oath that they would protect the couple no matter who the groom would be. After the oath was taken, Tyndareus picked Menelausas his daughter's husband, effectively making him the successor of the Spartan throne through Helen. However, Menelaus caused Aphrodite's wrath, after failing to sacrifice one hundred oxen for her as he had promised; this is why Aphrodite decided to help Paris win Helen's heart. The goddess made a plan and disguised Paris as a diplomatic emissary. He then went to Sparta, where Helen welcomed him, while her husband was away in Creteto bury his uncle. At that point, the god of love, Eros, shot an arrow to her, thus causing her to fall in love with the Trojan prince. The two lovers eloped and left for Troy.

Menelaus returned home and realised what had happened. Along with Odysseus, they went to Troy to get Helen back, but all diplomatic attempts failed. So, Menelaus invoked the Oath of Tyndareus, and, helped by his brother Agamemnon, called all Achaean leaders who had previously been the suitors of Helen to fulfill their oath. They also needed the help of Achilles, as they knew of the prophecy that Troy would only fall with his help. Odysseus, Telamonian Ajax and Phoenix went to Skyros where they knew Achilles was hidden disguised as a woman. There, they either blew a warhorn, on the sound of which Achilles was the only woman that took a spear in hand; or they appeared as merchants selling jewels and weapons, and Achilles was the only woman interested in the latter.

Having Achilles with them, all leaders gathered at the port of Aulis. A sacrifice was made to Apollo, and the god sent an omen; the Achaeans saw a snake appear from the altar that slithered to a bird's nest, where it ate the mother and her nine babies before it was turned to stone. The seer Calchas said that this meant Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war. The Achaeans set sail for Troy, although no one knew the way. By mistake, they arrived in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus; after a battle, during which Achilles wounded the king, the Achaean ships sailed but a storm scattered them. Telephus' wound would not heal, and an oracle told him it would be healed by the person who inflicted it. When Telephus confronted Achilles, he said he did not have any medical knowledge; Odysseus then proposed that the spear that caused the wound might help, so pieces of metal were used and the wound was healed. Telephus then told them how they would reach Troy.

Due to the storm that scattered the fleet, the Achaean leaders eventually gathered in Aulis again eight years later. However, they were unable to set sail because there was no wind. Calchas realised that this was a punishment from the goddess Artemis, who was furious at Agamemnon for killing a sacred deer. Artemis demanded that Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia be sacrificed. Although Agamemnon initially refused, he reluctantly agreed in the end, and tricked his wife Clytemnestra and Iphigenia to go to Aulis, saying that Iphigenia was to marry Achilles. When they arrived to Aulis and understood what was going on, Clytemnestra cursed Agamemnon and was the reason she murdered him after the war was over. Iphigenia gracefully accepted her fate and placed herself on the altar; however, just as Calchas was about to sacrifice her, Artemis substituted the woman for a deer and took her to Tauris where she became the goddess' high priestess. Nevertheless, no one saw what happened on the altar except Calchas, who was bound not to say anything.

The winds picked up again after the sacrifice and the Achaean fleet was finally able to set sail. They made a stop at the island of Tenedos, where Achilles killed the king, who was the son of the god Apollo. Thetis had warned her son not to kill the king, lest he be killed by the god himself. This was also a foretelling of the hero's fate. While on the island, the Greeks sent a diplomatic mission to Troy asking for Helen, but it was refused into the city. So the fleet sailed on its final leg of the journey.

When the fleet arrived, they were all reluctant to disembark, as a prophecy said that the first Greek to step on Trojan soil would be the first to die in the war. Finally, Odysseus decided to disembark first; however, he threw his shield on the ground and stepped on it, while Protesilaus who followed him landed on the ground. Thus it was Protesilaus who died first, during a single combat against the Trojan prince Hector.

The siege of Troy lasted nine years, but not being complete, Troy was still able to maintain trade links with other Asian cities, as well as get reinforcements. At the end of the ninth year, the Achaean army mutinied and demanded that they return home, but Achilles eventually convinced them to stay longer.

On the tenth year, the priest of Apollo, Chryses, went to Agamemnon and asked for his daughter Chryseis' return, who had been taken as a concubine. Agamemnon refused, and Chryses prayed to Apollo, who inflicted the Greek army with plague. Agamemnon returned Chryseis to her father, but instead took Achilles' concubine for his own. Achilles, infuriated, said he would no longer fight and stayed in his tent. Although the Achaeans initially won a few battles, Achilles' refusal to fight led to a series of defeats, to the point that the Trojans almost set fire to the Greek ships. Then, Patroclus, a close friend of Achilles, took command of the Myrmidon army, but was slain in battle by Hector. Achilles, maddened with grief, swore vengeance; Agamemnon returned the concubine back to him and the two leaders reconciled. The Greek army was again victorious, and Achilles eventually managed to kill Hector; he refused to give Hector's body to the Trojans for burial, and instead, he desecrated it by dragging it with his chariot in front of the city walls. He eventually agreed to return it, after King Priam of Troy pleaded for his son's proper burial.

Achilles later died by a poisonous arrow that Paris shot against him. The arrow was guided by the god Apollo and hit Achilles on his heel, which was the only vulnerable spot of the hero's body. Achilles was burned on a funeral pyre and his bones were mixed with those of his close friend Patroclus. Paris was killed later by Philoctetes, using Heracles' bow.

Odysseus devised a plan to end the war for good. He asked that a wooden horse be built that was hollow inside. Soldiers hid in the interior of the horse, which was brought in front of the city gates, saying that it was a gift from the Greeks, showing the withdrawal of the Greek army and the end of the war. The Trojans happily accepted and brought the horse inside the city. They then started feasting and celebrating the victory. During the night, the Greek soldiers went out of the horse and started slaying the drunk Trojans. In the battle that followed, a huge number of soldiers died but eventually, Troy fell. The Greeks burned it and raided it, at the same time committing offences against many gods, by destroying temples and sacred grounds. Although victorious, most heroes and Greek soldiers either never returned home or returned after many adventures, as the gods were infuriated.

The Trojan War marked the end of the Heroic Age of Man, according to Hesiodus, and the transition of the world to the Iron Age. Zeus' attempt to depopulate the earth and kill a number of demigods and heroes proved successful.